Understanding Intelligence: Definitions and Concepts

Intelligence

• Intelligence involves understanding complex ideas.
• Intelligence involves adapting effectively to the environment.
• Intelligence involves learning from experience.
• Intelligence requires engaging in reasoning.
• Intelligence calls for overcoming obstacles through thought.
• The word “intelligence” comes from the Latin “intellegere,” which means understanding.
• Ancient Indian rishis used the term "Viveka"

Definitions of intelligence

• Spearman (1904): Proposed intelligence as a general ability involving education of relations and correlates.
• Binet and Simon (1905): Defined intelligence as the ability to judge, understand, and reason well.
• Terman, Rex, Knight, Munn: Viewed intelligence as the ability to form concepts and grasp significance.
• Thurston (1921): Defined intelligence as the capacity to inhibit instinctive adjustments and flexibly imagine/realize different behavioral responses.
• Wechsler (1939): intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with one's environment.
• Gardner (1986): intelligence is the ability to solve problems or fashion valued products within cultural settings.

Nature of intelligence

• Intelligence is not solely acquired through labor or memory.
• Intelligence is not a skill acquired exclusively through practice.
• An intelligent person may have poor memory.
• Intelligence doesn't guarantee good behavior.
• Intelligence is innate.

Characteristics of Intelligence

• Includes characteristics such as creativity and interpersonal skills
• The ability to solve problems is a key characteristic.
• The capacity to adapt and learn from experiences is important.
• Mental abilities enable adaptation to, shaping, or selection of environments.
• Intelligence involves reasoning, judgment, and comprehension.
• Intelligence enables understanding and dealing with people, objects, and symbols.
• The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment is key.
• The developmental period for intelligence occurs from birth to adolescence.
• Intelligence is mainly determined by heredity, with environment necessary for improvement.
• Some individual differences exist between boys and girls

Determinants of Intelligence

• Heredity and environment are both important in determining intelligence.
• Heredity provides the physical body and capabilities.
• Environment enables maturation and training.

Nature vs Nurture

• Intelligence is not controlled by a single "intelligence gene" and results from complex genetic interactions.
• In 1940 variations in I.Q. were determined about 68% by heredity and 32% by environment.

Genetic Influences on Intelligence

• Twin studies reveal IQs of identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins.
• Siblings reared together in the same home have more similar IQs than adopted children raised together

Environmental Influences on Intelligence:

• Maternal age and prenatal exposure to harmful substances influence intelligence.
• Critical language learning typically occurs when children are aged 2 to 4 years
• Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same environment.
• School attendance impacts IQ scores.

Environmental Factors and Intelligence

• Age: Bright or dull children tend to remain so throughout life.
• Race and Nationality: Environment and training affect intellectual level, not race.
• Culture: Determines a person's attitudes and abilities.
• Health and Physical Development: Physical and mental health are related to achievement.
• Diseases and physical defects affect intelligence.
• Sex: There are no significant differences, but girls show slight superiority in language and memory.
• Social and Economic Conditions: Home conditions and financial status influence behaviors/attitudes.
• Breastfeeding: Children breastfed in early months tend to have higher IQ scores.
• Flynn effect: Average intelligence scores steadily improve due to nutrition and education.

Theories of Intelligence

Uni-factor Theory of Intelligence

• This theory, introduced by Wilhelm Stern in 1911, proposes intelligence as a general ability.
• 'g' is the symbol for general/unitary ability.
• Individuals are endowed with 'g' in unequal amounts.
• It is the simplest theory and is like a common sense model

Spearman's Two Factor Theory Of Intelligence

• Charles Spearman proposed it in 1927 and it was the first based on factor analysis.
• The concept of 'g' factor (general intelligence) and 's' factor (specific intelligence) was developed.
• 'g' factor refers to broad, inborn mental capacities influencing performance.
• 's' factor is a score representing a person's ability in a particular area, acquired from the environment.
• Limitations: It has poor intercorrelation and unusefulness of 'g' factor.

Cattell's Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

• Raymond Cattell (1963) proposed it based on factor analysis.
• Fluid intelligence is the inherent capacity to learn and solve novel problems.
• Crystallized intelligence is learned through investment of fluid intelligence in cultural settings.
• Fluid intelligence decreases after middle adulthood, while crystallized intelligence tends to stay stable or increase

Structure of Intellect Model

• Proposed by Guilford (1967), known as the tri-dimensional theory of intelligence.
• Intellectual traits organized along contents, operations, and products dimensions.
• Abilities are classified into subcategories making a total 150 abilities.
• Guilford expanded his theory to 180 abilities: 6 for operation, 5 for content and 6 for products.
• The operations involve basic intellectual process of thinking and has 5 sub categories
• Cognition: Includes discovery, rediscovery, and recognition of information.
• Memory recording: Includes a person's ability to readily encode the information.
• Memory retention: Includes a person's ability to retain the encoded information
• Divergent production: Ability to search for multiple creative or novel solutions.
• Evaluation: Means placing a value judgement on knowledge and thought.
• Convergent production: Includes the ability to search for a correct solution
• Content: refers to a type of content or material on which the operations are performed and has 5 subcategories:
• Visual: Includes concrete visual material.
• Auditory: Includes nature and characteristics of the sound perceived.
• Symbolic: includes letters words and other signs.
• Semantic: includes verbal meanings or ideas.
• Behavioural: Includes knowledge regarding other persons
• Products: Refers to the research of performing operations on contents and has 6 subcategories:
• Units: Refers to the production of a single word, definition or isolated bit of information. Classes: Refers to a production of a concept.

Thurston's Primary Mental Abilities

• Louis Thurston proposed the 7 primary mental abilities in 1935
• Some mental operations have a common primary factor with functional unity and group operation.
• Each group of mental abilities has primary factors for functional unity and cohesiveness.
• The seven primary mental abilities include:
• Verbal comprehension: Understanding the meaning of words, vocabulary test.
• Word fluency: To think words rapidly as in solving anagrams or thinking of words and rhymes.
• Numbers: Working with numbers and performing computations.
• Space: Visualizing space relations as in identifying the figures when it is in different orientations.
• Associative memory: effective encoding, storage and retrieval. Ability to recall verbal stimuli such as word pairs and sentences
• Perceptual speed: Grasping visual information quickly to see similarity and differences between pictured objects.
• Reasoning: Inductive reasoning (specific to general).

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory Of Intelligence

• R.J Sternberg divided intelligence into 3 sub-components in 1935: componential, contextual and experimental.
• Componential sub theory (analytical intelligence) involves Meta components, Performance components and Knowledge acquisition component.
• Experimental sub theory (creative intelligence) involves novel situations and automatization emphasizes more on creativity.
• Contextual sub theory (practical intelligence) intertwines with individuals' environment.

Howard Gardner Theory Of Multiple Intelligence

• Gardner disagreed with Spearman's g and came up with different types of intelligence.
• Eight different types of intelligence are independent but interacts with each other to provide solutions to problems.
• Visuospatial is relation among objects, recreating visual images; thinking in 3 dimensions.
• Verbal linguistic is sensitivity to, grasping/using language to represent ideas/express feelings.
• Logical mathematical is about abstract reasoning/manipulating of symbols, reasoning, logical thinking/mathematical problem-solving skills.
• Bodily kinaesthetic is about feelings and expressing things physically, going hands on works and being brightly flexible.
• Musical intelligence is sensitivity to speech and tone, creating and feeling rhythm to express a mood: detecting and analysing musical themes.
• Intrapersonal intelligence is understanding our own interior thoughts and feelings in a clear way.
• Interpersonal intelligence is understanding the feelings, needs and purpose of others.
• Naturalistic intelligence is understanding nature, seeing patterns in the nature work, classifying things.

Additional factors:

• Existentialism: meaning and purpose in life, spiritual, leaders and philosophers.
• Environmentalist: Environmental activists

Goleman's Theory Of Emotional Intelligence

• Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and recognize one's own and others emotion.
• Emotional intelligence includes discriminating emotion and using emotion in thinking and actions.
• Proposed by Daniel Goleman in 1998 it consists of 5 domains:
• Self-awareness is Capacity to recognize an understand emotion and have to sense one's action, mood and emotions of others take effect.
• Self-regulation entails Being flexible, coping wide change, managing conflicts and actions affects other and taking ownership of these actions.
• Social skills include well interaction with people, Interacting and communicating on day- to- day basis and active listening.
• Empathy involves Recognition of other's emotions and power dynamics.
• Motivation entails Intrinsic motivation rather than by external rewards.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT

• All theories of intelligence imply different nature of intelligence, so the assessment differs.
• Intellectual assessment and intelligence testing refer to the evaluation of an individual's general intellectual functioning.
• General intellectual functioning refers to global intelligence, often referred to as IQ.
• Intellectual ability is an exceptional capability or potential recognized through cognitive processes.

History of Assessment

• In 2200 BC, Chinese officials were examined for office fitness.
• From 206 BC to 220 BC, test batteries aided civil/military affairs, revenue, and agriculture.
• From 1368 AD to 1646 AD, the Ming dynasty used national multistage testing.
• In 1832, Western countries adopted similar methods to the East India Company, France, and Germany.
• After 1850, psychology separated from philosophy and allied with biological science.
• Darwin's theory of evolution stated not all members of the same species are alike.
• Galton used brass instrument mental testing, as he was interested in measurement.

People involved with intelligence testing

• Sir Francis Galton:*
• Was influenced by Darwin's Evolution Theory
• Found eminence and genius seemed to occur within certain families from his study of family trees.
• Assumed that eminent people inherited mental abilities for thinking.
• Also measured skull size, thinking it reflected brain volume/intelligence (academic and occupational success)
• Created an interest in mental measurement, setting the stage for Alfred Binet’s work.
• Dismissed effects of privileged environments
• Alfred Binet:*
• Proposed the first intelligence scale in 1905
• Introduced the concept of mental age
• Known as the father of IQ testing.
• Binet assessed the mental skills of French Children and launched the modern intelligence testing movement.
• Binet and Simon developed the Binet-Simon scale (1905) with 30 problems emphasizing judgement.
• They assessed the children and then computed an average score for children and compared individual children to that group, this resulted in a score which defined the mental age.
• Lewis Terman:*
• Terman revised Binet test to allow comparison of intellectual functioning among individuals.
• He imported the test to Stanford University in the United States and called it the Stanford-Binet Scale (1916)
• The Stanford-Binet Scale (1916) became a standard test, and it is still used today.
• The Stanford-Binet Scale (1916) yielded a single IQ score.
• Introduced concept of IQ
• Wilhelm Stern:*
• Introduced the term IQ

Concept of IQ

• Alfred Binet put forward Concept of mental age
• Cattell coined phrase “mental test”
• William Stern coined “Intelligence Quotient."
• The first IQ was introduced in the 1916 American revision of the Binet-Simon scale at Stanford.
• IQ is the ratio of mental age to chronological age, multiplied by 100.
• IQ indicates an individual's performance on an intelligence test relative to those of other person with the same age.

Intelligence Tests

• administered one-on-one
• requires highly skilled professionals
• generally done in clinical settings and with younger children

Group tests

• The first group intelligence test was done during the World War-I.
• It involved army alpha and army beta test.
• It is mainly used in educational settings.
• It is used in adults and adolescents.

Stanford Binet intelligence scale

• Oldest test of intelligence, and was created in France in 1889 by Alfred Binet.
• Binet was asked to devise a way to diagnose slow learners and mentally retarded in schools.
• The scale, now known as Binet Simon scale with 30 items, was first published in 1905.
• Conceived intelligence as a unitary factor, not separated by mental abilities, which can be represented by a single score.
• Items are arranged by ascending difficulty from no units of measurement, simply categorizing people by Idiots, Imbeciles, Morons.
• It was revised in 1908 and 1911 and in 1916 Terman revised the test and also included the concept of IQ.
• The latest edition is the 5th edition introduced in 2003 by Roid.
• SB5 is developed on the basis of 5 factors of intelligence- Fluid intelligence, Knowledge, Quantitative reasoning, Visual-spatial processing and Working memory.
• Major features of SB5 include assessing 2-85 years old and considered for first time religious traditions and working memory.

Wechsler intelligence scale

• Created by David Wechsler in 1939 to measure adult intelligence
• It involved a Wechsler Bellevue scale used with children above 10 and adults.
• It include two equivalent forms- Form I and Form II which consisted of 10 subtests
• Later renamed as the Wechsler adult intelligence scale in 1955.
• Types include Wechsler's adult intelligence scale (WAIS III) and Wechsler's intelligence scale for children (WISC III).
• For Wechsler's adult intelligence scale, the Wechsler-Bellevue scale became the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) with 11 subtests
• For Wechsler's intelligence scale for children, it Provides the profile of someone's strength and weakness
• The Wechsler intelligence scale consists of 13 subtests (6 verbal test and 7 performance test).

Kaufman's Scale

• The Kaufman's scale is an individually administered clinical instrument
• 3 types of intelligence tests in Kaufman's scales:
• Kaufmann Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) mainly assesses children aged two years, six months to 12 years, 6 months with 16 subtests involving simultaneous processing and sequential mental processing
• Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) is KAIT mainly administered in 11 to 85 years age people, with a crystallized scale and a fluid scale.
• Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) is a Designed test for estimating the level of intellectual functioning, with KBIT Test as a brief, individually administered measure of verbal and non-verbal (Matrices subtest) intelligence.

Raven's progressive matrices

• Introduced by J C Raven in 1936 it a group of nonverbal tests.
• designed primarily as a measure of Spearman's g factor of general intelligence.
• It presents patterns in matrices and involves choosing which piece from a set is missing.
• Available in different types of forms such as: CPM, SPM and APM

Seguin form board

• French physician Seguin developed a performance-based intelligence test using form boards in 1856 .
• Used to evaluate eye-hand coordination, shape concept, visual perception, and cognitive ability .
• Assesses visuomotor coordination, spatial organization, participants' their motor dexterity and speed.

Bhatia's test of intelligence

• Chandra Mohan Bhatia director for Uttar Pradesh Constructed this test for Indian Population in 1955 to measure children.
• Includes 5 subtests like Koh's Block Design Test, Alexander Pass Along Test and Pattern Drawing Test

Extremes of Intelligence

• IQ scores are distributed so the population the average is the most prevalent score
• The average IQ score in a population is 100.
• People with IQ scores in the range of 90- 110 have average intelligence, 50% of population.
• IQ below 70 said to be mentally disabled, covers 2.5% of the population.
• IQ above 130 indicates giftedness
• Individuals with 80-89 have Low IQ
• People with 70-79 are on the border
• People with 69 or lower have an Extremely ow IQ
• Even though the term talent and giftedness used interchangeably, they mean different things.
• Intellectually disabled or mentally retarded: IQ below 70.

Mild, Moderate, and Severe Retardation

MILD

• IQ is 50-70
• Common type, 85-90% of intellectual disability
• Hold a job and start a family MODERATE
• IQ is 30-35 to 50-55
• Motor development problems
• Supervision in everyday tasks SEVERE
• IQ is 20-25 ΤΟ 35-40
• Markedly delayed speech and communication skills
• Incapable of managing life Profound
• • IQ is BELOW 20-25
• severel deficit in adaptive behavior
• Needs nursing care
• Causes include: Down syndrome, phenylketonuria, hydrocephaly

APTITUDE TEST

• Aptitude refers to a persons ability acquired or innate to learn or develop knowledge or skills in some thing
• Aptitude can be grouped into two categories, Specialised aptitude tests like Clerical and Multiple tests like GATB.
• One of the most common multiple aptitude tests is (DAT) Differential Aptitude Tests that comprised 8 subtests:

There are also the following types of tests:

• Sensory tests measure visual and auditory ability.
• Motor dexterity tests measure measuring the co-ordination of hand, arm and/or leg movement

The Aptitude Tests are used for:

• Admission to professional trainings.
• Guidance for institutions.
• Selection for jobs.
• Scholastic aptitude, and in giving vocational guidance.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

• Achievement is what acquired or achieved after the specific training
• Aptitude refers to tests and special abilities like: like small part dexterity, sternberg's dexterity test etc
• Achievement tests can reveal any weakness.
• They are also effective in the formulation of educational goals and provide a very easy means of critical examination of the content and method of instruction.

PERSONALITY

• According to Gordon Allport, "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment."

Characteristics of personality

• Unique and specific
• Consists of consciousness
• Not static and dynamic
• Learning and acquisition
• Not ego

Approaches to psychology

• Psychodynamic
• Neo-Freudian
• Type
• Trait
• Humanistic

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

• These theories postulate the existence of unconscious internal states
• focus on unconscious factors that motivate individual's behavior
• human nature as basically deterministic by irrational forces
• There are three levels of consciousness:
• Conscious: Contains thoughts and feelings
• Subconscious or pre-conscious: Can be accessed by deliberate choice
• Unconscious: Consists of unconscious thoughts of which we remain largely unaware of.
• This can be determined from things like slip of tongue in: error in speech memory etc.

Levels of analysis

• Dream analysis: therapeutic technique for its use in psycho analysis
• “Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious."
• the following forms are present:
• Latent contents are symbolic contents: hidden, symbolic and unconscious motives, wishes and fears
• Manifest content: real content or what is consciously revealed in dreams

Instincts

• innate psychological representation of a body excitation or need.
• Types of instincts
• Life instinct: purpose of survival where they called also libido
• Death instinct: ultimate, the aggressive drives, manifest one's unconscious wishes

Structure of personality

• • Reservoir of all psychic energy which requires immediate gratification of needs id
• Executive aspect of one's personality which regulate EGO which requires the moral/value principle

Types of anxiety

• Neurotic anxiety: unconscious fear
• Realistic anxiety: state that occurs in humans to be in genuine danger
• Moral anxiety: function of the development of the super ego.

Defense Mechanism

• Repression denial: unconscious denial of the existence of something
• Reaction formation: expressing id impulses
• attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else
• retreating to an earlier, less frustrating period Rationalization: finding acceptable why things happen
• shifting id impulses from a threatening object

The following stages involved is psycho sexual development

• The stages involved are the following for each stage
• Sucking for food
• Major activities
• Pleasure stimulation without food
• Behavior starts as bite
• The child has needs for: independence, power, to learn discipline

Neo-Freudian approaches

• KARL GUSTAV JUNG* *
• One of the most dependable and reliable disciples of Freud
• The points on which Jung came to disagree with Freud was the role of sexuality, the direction of forces that influence personality, unconscious
• He developed his own theory known as analytical psychology
• He identified the Ego as the conscious mind constituting of conscious perceptions, memories, thoughts- He divided the unconscious into two parts
• which is similar to freuds notion: thoughts, feelings powerful system that is shared among humans
• collective and individual

Archetype

• A universal form or idea that contains a large element of emotion
• KAREN HORNEY*
• Women psychologist and another deflector from the typical Freudian concept
• Transformed Freud's instinctual focus into cultural focus
• Believed that gender difference is largely due to social factors and not due to inherent innate differences
• She criticized Freud's concept of Penis envy and gave the concept of womb envy were males being envious to women due to their ability to give birth
• Argues that it was not the male penis woman envied but rather the power and autonomy associated

All personality

• Allport defined traits as the distinguishing characteristics that guide behavior that are subject to social, environmental, and cultural influences.

Traits

• are anything that characterize things Cardinal Central:
• traits that control behavior

CATTEL

• Source traits:
• 13 factors that describe