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Questions and Answers
What is a major cause of obesity in the USA?
What BMI range is considered healthy?
Which health disorder is linked to obesity?
What dietary change is recommended for weight loss?
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What is the role of insulin in blood sugar regulation?
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What factor does BMI not consider when assessing healthy weight?
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How much weight loss is considered safe per week?
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What does glucagon do when blood sugar is low?
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What is the role of the active site of an enzyme?
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Which of the following statements about passive transport is true?
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What distinguishes endocytosis from exocytosis?
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Which of the following describes the role of chloroplasts in photosynthesis?
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What condition is described as having more solute outside the cell?
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Which type of cellular transport requires energy?
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What is the primary function of stomata in leaves?
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Lactose intolerance results from the absence of which enzyme?
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Which of the following best describes Type 1 Diabetes?
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What is a common complication of diabetes?
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What characterizes Type 2 Diabetes?
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Which dietary guideline should be followed for a healthy diet?
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What is considered normal blood pressure?
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What is the primary function of enzymes in metabolism?
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Which best describes the process of cellular respiration?
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What is the role of ATP in cellular energy?
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What is the primary purpose of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
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Which product is primarily generated during the Calvin Cycle?
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What happens to water molecules during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
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How many ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of glucose during cellular respiration?
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What is the role of NAD⁺ in cellular respiration?
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During glycolysis, which molecules are generated from one molecule of glucose?
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Where does the citric acid cycle occur within the cell?
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Which chlorophyll variant is primarily responsible for absorbing blue and red light?
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Study Notes
What is a Healthy Weight?
- The perception of a healthy weight varies by culture and time period.
- In the USA, more than 7 out of 10 adults are overweight or obese.
- Factors contributing to obesity include high-fat fast food, lack of exercise, and heredity.
- Obesity increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers.
- Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of healthy weight. A BMI between 20 and 24 is considered healthy, while a BMI over 30 indicates obesity.
- BMI does not consider muscle mass, age, gender, or body frame size.
- To maintain a healthy weight, energy intake should equal energy output.
- Weight loss tips include reducing calorie intake, increasing exercise, eating smaller portions, and avoiding high-fat/sugar foods.
- Safe weight loss should be between 0.5 and 2 pounds per week, equivalent to a reduction of 3500 calories.
Disorders Associated with Obesity
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Type 2 Diabetes:
- Sustained elevated blood sugar levels (glucose).
- Insulin, produced by the pancreas, regulates blood sugar by facilitating glucose uptake into cells.
- Glucagon, also produced by the pancreas, raises blood sugar levels by breaking down stored glucose in the liver.
- Type 1 diabetes involves the pancreas failing to produce insulin and requires insulin injections.
- Type 2 diabetes results from insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance and can be managed with diet and exercise.
- Complications from diabetes include blindness, amputation, kidney disease, slow wound healing, and cardiovascular disease.
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Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
- Can lead to heart attacks and strokes.
- Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mmHg.
- Weight gain increases blood pressure.
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Heart Attack and Stroke:
- Heart attack occurs when a portion of heart muscle dies due to blocked or ruptured blood vessels.
- Stroke occurs when a portion of the brain dies due to blocked or ruptured blood vessels.
- Atherosclerosis, the buildup of fat and cholesterol deposits in arteries, contributes to heart attacks and strokes.
Eating Disorders
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Anorexia:
- An irrational fear of gaining weight leading to self-imposed starvation.
- Can cause organ failure, death, and amenorrhea (loss of menstrual cycle).
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Bulimia:
- Characterized by binge eating followed by purging.
- Leads to dental problems, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.
A Healthy Diet
- Dietary guidelines include:
- Moderate fat intake, with low saturated fats and trans fats.
- Consuming complex carbohydrates from whole grains, vegetables, and legumes.
- Avoiding refined carbohydrates (sugars and starches).
- Low salt intake.
- Adequate protein from poultry, fish, and plants, as well as vitamins and minerals.
- Moderate alcohol consumption.
- Avoiding fad diets.
Energy in Cells
- Energy is the capacity to do work.
- Potential energy is stored energy, while kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
- ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell.
- ATP is composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
- The ATP cycle involves the release of energy when a phosphate group is removed from ATP (ATP → ADP) and the rebuilding of ATP by adding energy (ADP + P → ATP).
- Energy flows from solar energy to glucose through photosynthesis and from glucose to ATP through cellular respiration.
Metabolism
- Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body.
- Catabolism breaks down molecules, releasing energy.
- Anabolism builds up molecules, requiring energy.
- Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, speeding up reactions without being consumed.
- Activation energy is the energy required for a reaction to occur.
- Enzymes function by binding to a specific substrate at their active site.
- Enzyme-related problems include lactose intolerance (missing lactase enzyme), albinism (missing enzyme to produce melanin), and Tay-Sachs disease (missing enzyme to break down toxic brain waste).
Cellular Transport
- The plasma membrane controls the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
- The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with protein passageways and is selectively permeable.
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Types of Cellular Transport:
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Passive Transport: Movement from high to low concentration requiring no energy.
- Simple Diffusion: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of ionic/polar molecules using protein passageways.
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Osmosis: Water movement across a membrane.
- Isotonic: Equal solute concentration.
- Hypertonic: More solute outside, causing the cell to shrink.
- Hypotonic: Less solute outside, causing the cell to burst.
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Active Transport: Movement from low to high concentration requiring energy.
- Example: Sodium/Potassium pump (Na/K pump).
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Bulk Transport: Moving macromolecules in and out of the cell.
- Exocytosis: Moving substances out of the cell.
- Endocytosis: Engulfing substances into the cell.
- Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" - Engulfs solids.
- Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking" - Engulfs liquids.
- Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Engulfs specific molecules, like cholesterol.
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Passive Transport: Movement from high to low concentration requiring no energy.
Importance of Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis transforms solar energy into chemical energy (glucose).
- Autotrophs: Organisms that produce their own food (e.g., plants, cyanobacteria, algae).
- Heterotrophs: Organisms that acquire food from other sources (e.g., herbivores, carnivores).
- Photosynthesizers form the base of the food chain by producing energy-rich carbohydrates.
Structures Involved in Photosynthesis
- Leaves are the primary site of photosynthesis.
- Stomata: Tiny pores on the underside of leaves that allow for gas exchange (CO₂ in, O₂ and H₂O out).
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Chloroplasts: Organelles within leaf cells where photosynthesis occurs.
- Stroma: Fluid inside the chloroplast.
- Thylakoids: Membrane sacs inside the chloroplast, stacked into grana.
- Chlorophyll: The primary pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis, located in the thylakoids.
The Process of Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, primarily glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).
- Electron transfer involves removing electrons from H₂O and transferring them to CO₂ through redox reactions.
- Reduction: Gains electrons and energy.
- Oxidation: Loses electrons and energy.
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Two Stages of Photosynthesis:
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Light Reactions:
- Chlorophyll absorbs solar energy, exciting electrons.
- Water is oxidized, releasing electrons and H⁺.
- ATP is produced, and NADP⁺ becomes NADPH after accepting electrons.
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Calvin Cycle:
- CO₂ is absorbed and, using ATP and NADPH, reduced to a carbohydrate (glucose).
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Light Reactions:
Harvesting Light Energy
- Radiant energy (solar energy) exists in different wavelengths, with visible light being a small portion of the spectrum.
- Colors of Light: ROYGBIV (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).
- Energy Content: Highest for violet, lowest for red.
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Photosynthetic Pigments:
- Chlorophyll a: The main pigment responsible for photosynthesis, absorbing blue and red light, and reflecting green (the color seen by our eyes).
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Accessory Pigments:
- Chlorophyll b: Yellow-green.
- Carotenes: Orange.
- Xanthophylls: Yellow.
Overview of Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration produces ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
- Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose) + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP.
- ATP powers all cellular activities.
- Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria.
- Energy release: Glucose is broken down to produce 38 ATP per glucose molecule.
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Coenzymes (Electron carriers):
- NAD⁺ becomes NADH.
- FAD becomes FADH₂.
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Four Phases of Cellular Respiration:
- Glycolysis.
- Prep Reaction.
- Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle).
- Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
Phases of Cellular Respiration
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A. Glycolysis:
- Location: Cytoplasm.
- Requires 2 ATP to start.
- Breaks glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules.
- Yield: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.
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B. Prep Reaction:
- Location: Mitochondria.
- Prepares 2 pyruvates for the Citric Acid Cycle.
- Yield: 2 acetyl CoA, 2 NADH, 2 CO₂.
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C. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):
- Location: Mitochondria.
- Two turns of the cycle occur for each glucose molecule.
- Yield (per glucose molecule): 4 CO₂, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, 2 ATP.
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D. Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
- Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.
- Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ are passed down a chain of proteins, releasing energy.
- This energy is used to pump H⁺ ions across the membrane, creating a proton gradient.
- The flow of H⁺ ions back across the membrane powers ATP synthesis.
- The ETC uses O₂ as the final electron acceptor, producing H₂O as a byproduct.
- Yield: Approximately 34 ATP per glucose molecule.
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Description
Explore the complex factors surrounding healthy weight and obesity in this quiz. Learn about Body Mass Index (BMI), its implications, and the associated health risks of obesity, such as Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Gain insights into effective weight management strategies and tips for maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
