2.1.1 culture

• Culture is a society's entire way of life, encompassing knowledge, beliefs, language, values, norms, customs, traditions, mores, cuisine, arts, and music.
• Culture and society are interdependent; culture fosters self-consciousness and identity.

Culture vs. Society

• Society is a structured community where individuals interact and create institutions like family, education, government, religion, and media.
• Culture shapes societal functions and values.

Key Elements of Culture

• Beliefs are strong convictions held without evidence and vary across time and societies.

Beliefs

• The divine right of kings contrasts with republicanism as an example of varying beliefs.
• Some monarchies still uphold traditional beliefs.
• The American Dream, as defined in 1931, is the belief in opportunity regardless of social class.
• Western societies value reason, while Middle Eastern and Asian societies may prioritize hierarchy and authoritarianism.

Language

• Language is essential for communication and societal cohesion.
• As an example, Hindi unifies India.

Symbolic Cultural Artefacts

• Symbolic cultural artifacts include flags, dress, monuments, and cultural products like music, cuisine, and sports.
• Sports, like cricket, symbolize historical and political struggles.

Types of Culture

High Culture

• High culture is associated with the elite, and includes theatre, opera, ballet, and classical music.
• Shakespearean plays in English-speaking countries and Kabuki in Japan are examples of high culture.

Mass/Popular Culture

• Mass/popular culture consists of mass-produced entertainment like TV, films, pop music, and social media.
• Mass/popular culture is often criticized for being superficial and sensationalist.

Folk Culture

• Folk culture is the culture of ordinary people, often in pre-industrial societies.
• It is passed down through generations and includes folk songs, dances, and myths.
• Bollywood films incorporating Hindu mythology are an example.

Values

• Values are widely accepted beliefs about what is desirable.
• Universal values include human life, compassion, and family life.
• Relative values vary by society and time period.
• American values include patriotism and gun rights.
• Asian value systems prioritize community over individual rights.

Norms

• Norms are rules governing behavior in specific contexts.
• Western privacy norms contrast with Trinidadian social openness.
• American handshakes differ from Arab expressive gestures.
• Respectful kneeling in African cultures contrasts with gender equality concerns.
• Muslim norms on modesty include the hijab, niqab, and burka, as well as family respect.
• Cultural taboos include cannibalism, considered sacred by the Korowai tribe of Papua New Guinea.

Roles

• Roles are expected behaviors for specific social positions.
• Doctors are expected to show professionalism and confidentiality.
• Gender roles involve distinct societal expectations for men and women.

Customs

• Customs are traditional norms passed through generations.
• Examples include Ramadan in Islam, and Diwali in Hinduism, Sikhism, and Jainism.

Social Mores and Laws

• Mores are strongly held moral values, often concerning behavior and sexuality.
• Deviance is a violation of norms, and can be informal or legal.
• Laws are formalized norms with legal consequences.
• Human life protection laws criminalize murder, negligence, and abuse.