Understanding Binary Compounds

Binary Compounds

• A compound is formed of two or more elements chemically combined.
• Water (hydrogen and oxygen) and carbon dioxide (carbon and oxygen) exemplify compounds represented by chemical formulas.
• Binary compounds result from the combination of just two elements.
• Examples of binary chemical compounds:
  • Lithium fluoride (LiF)
  • Sodium iodide (NaI)
  • Potassium chloride (KCl)
  • Potassium iodide (KI)
  • Calcium sulphide (CaS)
  • Potassium oxide (K2O)
  • Lithium oxide (Li2O)
  • Beryllium oxide (BeO)
  • Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
  • Calcium oxide (CaO)
  • Iron (II) sulphide (FeS)
  • Silver (I) chloride (HgCl)
  • Copper (II) oxide (CuO)
  • Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)
  • Carbon (II) oxide (CO)
  • Sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2)
  • Lead (II) oxide (PbO)
  • Silver (II) oxide (HgO)
  • Copper (I) chloride (Cu2O)
  • Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Water, Ammonia, Sodium chloride, Iron (ii) sulphite, Carbon dioxide, Calcium chloride, Copper (ii) oxide, Zinc (ii) chloride and Hydrochloric acid are further examples of binary compounds and their corresponding elements used in their formula.
• Diatomic compounds (or diatomic molecule) contain two atoms, which may or may not be the same

Elements, Molecules, Ions, and Compounds

• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means.
• A molecule involves a chemical bonding of two or more atoms.
• An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying an electric charge.
• Cations are positive ions, while anions are negative ions.
• A compound arises when two or more atoms unite chemically through covalent or ionic bonds.

Molecular Formulae of Binary Compounds

• A binary compound comprises atoms from two different elements, with the prefix "bi-" indicating "two."
• Guidelines for writing chemical formulae:
  • Note the symbols of the elements.
  • Indicate their valences below the symbols.
  • Interchange the valences as subscripts, omitting valences of 1.
• Example: Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Magnesium oxide (MgO), Sodium chloride (NaCl), Calcium oxide (CaO), Lithium chloride (LiCl)

Types of Binary Chemical Compounds

• A binary compound has two elements, which can be further divided into:
  • Binary acid compounds like Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
  • Binary ionic compounds like Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
  • Binary covalent/molecular compounds like Ammonia (NH3).

Acids, Bases, and Salts

• An acid releases hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxonium ions (H3O+) in an aqueous solution, turning litmus paper red.
  • Aqueous solutions use water as a solvent.
  • Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid or sulphuric acid (H2SO4), trioxonitrate (v) acid or nitric acid (HNO3), and ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).
• A base produces hydroxyl ions (OH-) in an aqueous solution, turning litmus paper blue; examples include:
  • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
  • Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  • Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
  • Ammonia (NH3)
  • Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
• A salt forms when an acid's hydrogen atom is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion:
  • Sodium chloride (NaCl) is common table salt.
  • Examples: Sodium iodide (NaI), Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), and Calcium sulphate (CaSO4).

Characteristics of Acids, Bases, and Salts

• Acids:
  • Acids turn litmus paper red.
  • Acids have a pH less than 7.
  • Acids taste sour and sting, not slippery.
  • Strong acids like concentrated H2SO4 are corrosive.
• Bases:
  • Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
  • Bases have a pH above 7 and a bitter taste.
  • Bases feel soapy or slippery.
  • Strong bases like concentrated NaOH are corrosive.

Properties of Salt:

• Salts conduct electricity in molten and aqueous states due to their ionic nature.
• Salts are brittle, crystalline solids that do not evaporate readily.
• Most salts are water-soluble, with exceptions like Carbonates, Sulphides, Sulphites, and Phosphates (except Ammonium, Sodium, and Potassium salts).

pH Scale

• pH measures a substance's acidity or alkalinity on a scale of 0 to 14.
• Substances with a pH under 7 are acidic, over 7 are alkaline/basic, and at 7 are neutral (like water and salts).

Acid-Base Indicators

• Indicators change color based on solution acidity/basicity, with color change dependent on pH.
• Litmus paper (red or blue) is a common indicator.
• Methyl orange, methyl red and phenolphthalein are further examples of acid-base indicators.

Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bonding is the attraction between two or more atoms to form a stable chemical compound.
• Primary atomic bonds include ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds.
• An ionic bond involves electron transfer, creating a cation (positive ion) and an anion (negative ion) that attract each other.
• A covalent bond features shared electron pairs between atoms, attracted to both nuclei.
• Metallic bonding involves positive ions in a delocalized electron "sea," held together by strong attractions.

Substances Exhibiting Bonding

• Ionic bonds occur between metals and nonmetals where the metal loses and the nonmetal gains electrons (e.g., NaCl, MgCl2).
• Covalent bonds happen between two nonmetals sharing electrons (e.g., H2O, NH3).
• Metallic bonds involve positive metal ions in a 'sea' of delocalized electrons (e.g., iron, gold).

Biological Molecules

• Biomolecules are chemical compounds in living organisms composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
• Four key types are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
• Carbohydrates offer energy to living cells and include simple sugars (glucose, fructose) and complex sugars (starch, cellulose).
• Proteins are complex molecules formed from amino acids linked by peptide bonds, with diverse functions like catalyzing reactions and transporting molecules.
• Lipids are water-insoluble molecules such as fats, oils, and waxes for energy storage and insulation.
• Nucleic acids, made of nucleotides, store genetic information as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
• Common atoms in biological molecules:
  • Carbon (C) is the backbone.
  • Hydrogen (H) attaches to carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen.
  • Oxygen (O) is vital for respiration/energy.
  • Nitrogen (N) is in proteins/nucleic acids.
  • Phosphorus (P) is in nucleic acids and is important for energy storage and transfer.
  • Sulfur (S) is that is important for protein structure and function.
• Trace elements such as calcium, magnesium, and iron, also contribute to biological processes.

The Nitrogen Cycle

• The cycle renews a repeating movement of nitrogen among the atmosphere, soil, water, organisms and bacteria.
• Nitrogen Fixation: Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) converts to ammonia (NH3) via bacteria, or legumes convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
• Assimilation: Plants take in nitrate and ammonium from soil to make amino acids.
• Ammonification: Organic nitrogen in dead matter breaks down into ammonia via decomposers.
• Denitrification: Bacteria returns nitrate back to atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2).
• Nitrogen is essential for DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis.
• The transformation of nitrogen compounds is critical to the health and balance of ecosystems.
• The cycle is vital in maintaining the nutrient balance in the environment.

Importance of Nitrogen Cycle and Disruptions

• The nitrogen cycle is a repeated pattern due to the essential role of nitrogen in life.
• The nitrogen cycle ensures a continuous nitrogen supply, maintaining the balance of nutrients and reducing soil erosion
• Disruptions include:
  • Fertilizer Use
  • Industrial Processes
  • Deforestation
  • Discharge of wastewater
  • Nitrogen deposition from combustion and agriculture.
• The effects of disrupting the Nitrogen Cycle include:
  • Eutrophication
  • Air Pollution
  • Loss of Biodiversity and Soil Degradation
  • Climate Change
  • Negative impacts on human health

Grasshopper Life Cycle

• Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis, transitioning through egg, nymph, and adult stages .
• Life Cycle Stages
  • The egg stage deposits eggs in soil or on plants.
  • Nymph is similar to adults without wings and has several molts through development.
  • Adult stage then has developed wings and reproductive organs, and they chirp to attract mates.
• The grasshopper cycles through changes gradually from nymph through adulthood, but it is not a complete transformation from larva to adult, which is why its considered incomplete metamorphosis.
• Activities of grasshoppers can cause significant agricultural damage can transmit certain ailments among plants and animals
• Activities include, feeding on plants, mating, and molting

Grasshopper Impact and Reduction

• In large numbers, they can cause agricultural damage and can transmit diseases to other plants and animals
• They support biodiversity as a food source for birds, lizards and small mammals if populations remain in balance
• They are also a source of nutrients for certain cultures
• Reduction of Harmful Effects:
  • Cultural Control (Crop rotation)
  • Chemical Control (Pesticides)
  • Biological Control (Natural Predators)
  • Mechanical Control(Barriers and traps)
  • Integrated Pest Management, including various controls and methods

Crop Production

• Maturity differences are described in the crop production section but stages fluctuate according to various crops/ conditions
• Germination, where the seed sprouts with adequate conditions
• Vegetative Growth, where the plant grows leaves and stems while needing resources like sunlight
• Reproductive Growth, where is starts producing flowers
• Maturity, where is has reach its full development and is ready to be harvested
• Senescence, where stems die off

Animal Feed

• Animal feed is grown for livestock and poultry and modern feeds are constructed carefully to improve the health of animals and their yield
• Concentrates high energy and are from cereal grains, oil meals and by-products from sugarcane, beets etc.
• Roughages include hays, straws, silages and root crops
• Animals require:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Protein
  • Fats / Oil
  • Minerals
  • Vitamins
  • Water
• Energy needed is from supplied carbohydrates/fats while protein can supply this too if there isnt enough carbohydrates/proteins

Animal Feed Types

• Traditional Feed: The food scraps and Industry byproducts are as found in local households, like,
  • peanut, corn and soy
  • slop food for pigs -spent grain
  • chicken scratch feed
• Compound blends: These contain several animals in mind so that they will have maximum value with their unique combinations of ingrdients, -soybean meal -groundnuts
  • flaseed -barley
• Premixes: These are sometimes classified under compound feed or sold seperately that contain micro ingredients that farmers can use: -vitamins -antibiotics -minerals -chemical preservatives -fermentation products

The Circulatory System

• Transports blood, including nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and blood cells throughout the body with the heart, blood and blood vessels,
• The heart is the major pumping organ that sends blood to the lungs and other destinations
• Blood vessels
  • Veins carry blood to the heart while arteries carry blood away
  • Capillaries move blood from vessels to other parts of the body
• Blood carries food, nutrients and other materials through bodily organs, such as oxygen

Parts of the Heart:

• The Vana Cava brings deoxygenated blood back to the heart
• The Right auricle(atrium) relaxes and recieves blood, pumping it to the right ventricle
• The Tricuspid Valve prevents blood from flowing too far up the atrium
• The Right Ventricle helps send blood into the pulmonary artery
• The Pulmonary vein send oxygenated blood to the heart, where the pulmonary artery transports deoxygenated blood for gaseous echange
• The Left atrium recieves ozygenated blood from the lungs
• The left ventricles recieves oxygenated blood and sends it into the aorta
• The Bicuspid valve prevents blood flow back into the left auricle, where the aorta carries blood to various body sectionts

The Circulatory system: Blood

• Deoxygenated blood then travels through the vena cava, right auricle, right ventricle, pulmonary valve and artery, where it recieves oxygen and then travels through the rest of the cycle
• Is the fluid in the body that travels nutrients and material in the body/organ systems
• Plasma is where most blood is made/created and acts as liquid part of blood
• Blood cells help transport the material in blood/help provide materials throughout the blood
• Transports oxygen and nutrients
• Help regulate body temperature
• Help defend the body
• Blood vessels help pump blood through body

Diseases in the Circulatory System

• Affects Blood Cells -Sickle Cell Anemia -Leukemia
• Affect the Heart
  • Coronary Thrombosis
  • Heart Cancer
  • Peacemaker
  • Myocardial Infarcation
• Affect Blood Vessels -Arteriosclerosis
  • Varicose Veins
  • Stroke
  • Piles
  • Hypo/hypertension

Blood Pressure:

• Blood Pressure is shown by the systolic reading divided by the diastolic reading, shown in mm Hg
• Blood Pressure can be measured for its level in heart, and also taken at regular signs like the hospital using a sphygmometer,
• Low/ High can be measure based on numbers, where regular blood pressure 120/80
• Prevented by a balanced diet, no alcohol, and regular exercise

The Respiratory System

• The respiratory system compliments each other, where both systems function together to maintain gas exhange in the blood
• The breakdown of food with energy, releasing or combining with oxygen during energy intake and control of body temp in Mammals (Respiration)
• Not the same as breathing because breaths include carbon intake/outtake
• Blood form respiration oxygenated from air taken into lungs into air sacs called Alveoli for gaseous exchange in the body

The Solar System

• In the solar system, not every object meets the criteria to be a planet, with the celestial objects classified as: -Asteroids that orbit the sun -Moons that naturally rotate planets -Meteoroids from other systems that enter the atmospheres -Trans Neptunian bodies from the Kuiper belt -Dust/gases that make interstellar clouds

Ecosystems

• A community and environment together that has things functioning together as a unit.
• Ecosystems consists of biotic parts (living organisms) and Abiotic parts, where Abiotic can affect animals. Biotic depend on abiotic as animals require water while abiotic depend on soil nutrients from plants, this creates competition for the need for food/resources among biotic.

Habitat= smaller area in ecosystem, focuses on specific species

Ecosystem= all relationships in an environment Includes food chain, and food web There is primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. Food web has complex feeding Certain activities can destabilize the ecosystem -Volcanic Eruptions -Farming -Galamsey In order to stabilize an ecosystem with to use to manage habitat loss, invasive species