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Questions and Answers
What are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell?
What are the two main classes of nucleic acids?
What are the monomers of nucleic acids?
What is the general equation for a combination reaction?
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What is the opposite of a combination reaction?
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What type of reaction involves the exchange of ions between two reactants?
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What is the product of a combustion reaction involving oxygen and a hydrocarbon?
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What are the monomers of proteins?
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What are the polymers of carbohydrates?
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What are the elements that comprise nucleic acids?
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Study Notes
Types of Waves
- Electromagnetic waves (EM waves) are created by vibrations between electric and magnetic fields
- Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate
Electromagnetic Waves
- Types:
- Radio waves (longest wavelength)
- Microwaves
- Infrared (IR)
- Visible light
- Colors of visible light:
- Red
- Orange
- Yellow
- Green
- Blue
- Violet
- Colors of visible light:
- Ultraviolet (UV)
- X-ray
- Gamma Ray (shortest wavelength)
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
- Can travel through vacuum at a speed of 3x10^8 m/s
- Energy is carried as they propagate
- Can travel through anything or vacuum, no medium needed
- Short wavelength = High Frequency, Long wavelength = Low Frequency
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
- Radio waves:
- Radio/Television Signals
- Global Positioning System (GPS)
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- Microwaves:
- Satellite Communication
- Cellular phones (Terrestrial Communication)
- Cooking
- RADAR
- Infrared (IR):
- Remote Control (IR remote)
- Thermal Imaging
- Visible Light:
- Artificial Lights (flashlight, lamp, etc.)
- Gives light to electronic devices' screens
- Optical Fibers
- Ultraviolet (UV):
- Security Markings
- Fluorescence
- Sterilization
- X-ray:
- Diagnosing Bone Fractures
- Airport security scanner
- Gamma Ray:
- Radiotherapy
- Sterilize surgical instruments
Mechanical Waves
- Types:
- Transverse Wave (moves in right angle direction)
- Compressional or Longitudinal wave (vibrates parallel to motion of pulse, transfers sound)
- Two types of Longitudinal waves:
- Compression: Close together
- Rarefaction: Spread apart
Wave Properties
- Frequency: Measured by how many complete waves pass a fixed point in a certain amount of time
- Wave speed (r): Wave speed (m/s) = Frequency (Hz) x Wavelength (m)
- Speed of wave = Wavelength (m)/time (s)
- λ=Vxt, f=1/t
- t=1/f, c=fxt
Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, and Interference
- Reflection: When an object or wave hits a surface through which it cannot pass, it bounces back
- Refraction: Bending of waves due to change of speed
- Diffraction: Wave moves around/through an opening in a barrier, it bends and spreads out
- Interference: Occurs when two or more waves meet while traveling through the same medium
- Constructive Interference: Combine wave, continues
- Destructive Interference: Crest meets trough, cancel each other
Endocrine Gland
- Anterior Pituitary:
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates follicular growth in ovaries
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Stimulates follicular growth in ovaries
- Ovaries:
- Estrogen: Thickens endometrium
- Progesterone: Thickens endometrium
Male Reproductive System
- Primary Hormones:
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Necessary to produce sperm
- Luteinizing hormone (LH): Necessary to continue spermatogenesis
- Testosterone: Main sex hormone in males
- Male reproductive parts:
- Penis: Organ used for urination and intercourse
- Scrotum: Holds testes in place
- Testes: Produces sperm and testosterone
Protein Synthesis
- Transcription:
- RNA polymerases combine nucleotides to form an RNA strand using one DNA strand as a template
- Translation:
- Codes in the messenger RNA are translated to a polypeptide that contains specific amino acids
- Amino acid bonds with each other to form polypeptides, which make up proteins
- Three stages: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
Mutations
- Changes to a DNA sequence
- Gene mutation: Point mutation (deletion, addition, or alteration of a single nucleotide base)
- Nonsense mutation: Results in the formation of a stop codon
- Missense mutation: When one nitrogenous base of the DNA is replaced, resulting in an altered codon
Nucleic Acids
- Two main classes: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- Polynucleotides composed of nucleotides
- Nucleotides consist of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group
- A and G are purines, while C, T, and U are pyrimidines
Types of Chemical Reactions
- Combination or Synthesis: A + B → AB
- Decomposition: AB → A + B
- Single Displacement (Replacement): AB + C → AC + B
- Double Displacement (Replacement): AB + CD → AD + CB
- Combustion (Burning) Reaction: Oxygen gas combines with a hydrocarbon, forming carbon dioxide and water
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