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Tricameral Parliament

• Introduced in 1983 by the National Party to offer limited political reform but further entrenched racial divisions.
• A strategic maneuver by the apartheid regime to modify the South African political landscape without fundamentally changing the power dynamics.
• Consisted of three houses: the House of Assembly (white representatives), the House of Representatives (coloured representatives), and the House of Delegates (Indian representatives).
• The House of Assembly had the most significant political power and control over critical governmental functions
• Excluded Black Africans, who were expected to exercise their political rights in the Bantustans or 'homelands'.
• Coloureds and Indians had little to no influence over significant national policies
• Electorate for each house was segregated by race
• Widely criticized as a cosmetic attempt to legitimize apartheid
• Met with widespread resistance from antiapartheid movements

The United Democratic Front (UDF)

• Emerged as a pivotal force in the antiapartheid struggle in South Africa during the early 1980s.
• Formed in 1983 as a broad coalition of approximately 400 organizations.
• Ideologically aligned with the Freedom Charter, advocating for a nonracial South Africa where all citizens had equal rights.
• Organized campaigns against participation in the Tricameral Parliament elections, resulting in extremely low voter turnout.
• Those who participated in the Tricameral Parliament were often denounced as 'sellouts' or 'puppets'
• Instrumental in mobilizing mass action against apartheid, including strikes, mass protests, school boycotts, rent boycotts, and consumer boycotts.
• Apartheid government responded with severe repression, including arrests and surveillance.
• Eventually banned by the government, who declared a State of Emergency in the mid1980s
• Efforts continued to galvanize public opinion against apartheid both domestically and internationally.
• Played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for the eventual negotiations that would end apartheid.
• Many former members became key figures in South Africa’s transition to democracy.

The role of Civics

• Civic organizations played a crucial and dynamic role in the antiapartheid movement in South Africa during the 1980s
• Concerned with addressing local community concerns such as high rents, inadequate municipal services, and poor public transport.
• Educated and mobilized residents around their rights and on issues affecting their communities.
• At the forefront of the resistance against the apartheid regime in the townships
• One of the most effective strategies was the organization of boycotts, where residents refused to pay rent or service fees to municipal authorities, challenging the financial foundations of the apartheid municipal governance system.
• By 1987, boycotts led to a significant financial shortfall for the government, totaling around R177 million
• Actions provoked harsh responses from the apartheid regime, with Black councillors and police officers becoming targets of community anger and violence.
• Activities were integral to the broader antiapartheid movement and helped to maintain the momentum of the antiapartheid movement during a critical period.

The role of the National Education Coordinating Committee

• Played a pivotal role in the struggle against apartheid education policies in South Africa, particularly during the late 1980s.
• Established in March 1986
• Sought to reform the educational system fundamentally by combating the deeply entrenched racial inequalities mandated by apartheid laws.
• Formed to bring together students, parents, and teachers to collectively address and reform educational injustices.
• Advocated for "Education for Liberation," promoting an education system that was democratic and emancipatory
• Under the coordination of the NECC, student activism intensified.
• Government responded with typical harshness, banning the NECC, along with 16 other antiapartheid organizations, in 1988
• Efforts and vision contributed to the postapartheid educational reforms.
• Remains a poignant example of how education can be used as a force for political and social change.

The South African Council of Churches

• Played a critical role in the antiapartheid movement
• Leveraged its moral authority and organizational network to challenge the injustices of apartheid.
• Prominent leaders were vocal critics of apartheid and used their positions and international platforms to condemn the policies of the apartheid government and to call for reforms.
• One of the landmark contributions was the publication of the Kairos Document in 1985
• The Kairos Document was revolutionary in its call for Christians to actively engage in the struggle against apartheid, supporting the use of civil disobedience as a moral obligation
• By framing apartheid as not only a political and social injustice but also a theological and moral crisis, the Kairos Document challenged churches to reconsider their teachings and stances.
• Government was highly critical of the SACC and its activities, viewing it as a subversive organization
• Advocacy and moral leadership was instrumental in the transition to a democratic South Africa.
• SACC's actions and the Kairos Document had a significant impact beyond South Africa, influencing global perceptions of apartheid and bolstering international support for sanctions

More on the National Education Coordinating Committee (NECC)

• NECC efforts to reform an inherently discriminatory educational system underscore the broader antiapartheid movement’s emphasis on education as a critical site of struggle.
• The NECC strategically targeted the apartheid educational policies that segregated students by race and ensured a vastly inferior quality of education for nonwhite South Africans.
• Banning of the NECC in 1988 highlighted the regime’s approach to dealing with dissenting voices
• NECC's ability to mobilize a wide range of stakeholders was instrumental in organizing effective boycotts and protests
• Legacy is evident in the postapartheid era, where educational reforms have sought to rectify the racial and economic inequalities embedded by apartheid.
• Postapartheid educational reforms have focused on desegregating schools, revising curricula to reflect a nonracial and inclusive perspective, and improving the quality of education for previously marginalized communities.

Mass Democratic Movement

• Formation in South Africa was a critical development in the trajectory of the antiapartheid struggle, especially following the banning of the UDF and other antiapartheid organizations in 1988
• Served as a pivotal platform for collective action against the apartheid regime, bringing together a broad spectrum of groups committed to the fight for democracy.
• After the banning of the UDF, the MDM emerged to fill this vacuum, adopting a similar structure and mission to continue the struggle under a new banner.
• Was not a single organization but a coalition comprising various antiapartheid groups.
• Significant actions included organizing a widespread campaign of civil disobedience in 1989
• Also organized multiple peaceful marches and protests across several cities.
• By 1989, it became evident that the apartheid government was struggling to control the scale and intensity of the protests organized by the MDM.
• Success of the MDM’s activities contributed to the eventual recognition by the apartheid government that reforms were unavoidable
• Marked the beginning of the end for apartheid

The End Conscription Campaign

• Emerged as a significant antiapartheid movement within South Africa, particularly influencing the white community that was subject to mandatory military service in the SADF.
• Played a crucial role in the broader struggle against apartheid by challenging the military’s involvement in enforcing apartheid policies.
• Formed in 1983 in response to the compulsory conscription of all white South African men into the SADF.
• The campaign provided a platform for conscientious objectors who opposed the apartheid regime and refused to support or be part of the military apparatus that upheld such policies.
• Advocated for the rights of individuals to refuse military service on moral and ethical grounds.
• Offered legal advice, support, and advocacy for those who faced legal repercussions for refusing military service.
• Through protests, public speaking events, and the distribution of literature, the ECC raised awareness about the role of the SADF in apartheid and encouraged widespread resistance to conscription.
• In 1988,The apartheid government banned the ECC, recognizing it as a threat

Black Sash

• Distinctive and highly influential women's resistance organization in South Africa, known for its staunch opposition to apartheid.
• Founded in 1955 by six middleclass white women in Johannesburg.
• Initially called the Women's Defence of the Constitution League
• Members wore black sashes as a symbol of mourning for the constitution.
• Became known for their silent vigils and peaceful protests, raising public awareness about the specifics of apartheid legislation and its impacts.
• Set up Advice Offices in urban centers across the country, providing legal aid and welfare advice to thousands of black South Africans affected by apartheid laws.
• Played a critical role in monitoring government policy and legislative developments.
• Members often faced public hostility, were sometimes arrested, and their meetings were frequently disrupted by the police.
• Outlived apartheid, transitioning into a nongovernmental human rights organization focused on social justice advocacy in postapartheid South Africa.

Reasons for the emergence of Black Consciousness in the 1970s.

• Can be attributed to a confluence of social, political, and ideological factors
• Sought to invigorate a new sense of agency among black South Africans.
• The Sharpeville Massacre in 1960 led to a significant vacuum in black political leadership and activism within South Africa.
• Apartheid government intensified its repressive measures against any form of opposition
• Many black activists became increasingly disillusioned with multiracial organizations
• Steve Biko and other black activists advocated for a new approach that emphasized psychological liberation and the forging of a positive black identity.
• BCM focused on raising awareness among black people of their collective power and the injustices imposed by apartheid, promoting slogans such as "Black is Beautiful."
• Emergence of Black Consciousness reinvigorated the antiapartheid struggle
• Inspired a new generation of black youth and laid the groundwork for the widespread protests that would later shake the apartheid regime, most notably the Soweto Uprising in 1976.
• Ideology extended beyond mere political activism, influencing art, literature, and education, and reshaping the discourse around black identity and resistance in South Africa.

Aims of Black Consciousness

• A transformative force in South Africa's struggle against apartheid.
• Emerged as a response to the systemic and psychological dimensions of racial oppression
• A core aim was to awaken black South Africans to the systemic injustices imposed by apartheid.
• Sought to infuse the black community with a sense of pride in their racial identity, culture, and history.
• Challenged the prevailing narratives that devalued blackness
• Encouraged black South Africans to depend on themselves for liberation
• Black Consciousness explicitly addressed the psychological aspects of colonial and apartheid indoctrination
• Education was not just about formal learning but also involved educating black people about their rights, potential, and the reality of their oppression.
• Proponents initiated community programs that focused on selfhelp and development
• Activists engaged in acts of civil disobedience and direct action to challenge apartheid laws and policies

Political Organisations

• Impact of Black Consciousness on political organization and mobilization in South Africa during the late 1960s and 1970s was profound and farreaching.
• Dissatisfied with the predominantly white NUSAS, Steve Biko and other leaders founded the South African Students' Organisation (SASO) in 1968.
• SASO targeted universities that were established or designated for black students
• Black Peoples Convention (BPC) was established as a broader political platform to articulate and advance the demands and aspirations of black South Africans.
• Ideology of BC inspired the creation of various other organizations, including the Black Parents Association, Black Allied Workers Union, and the Azanian Peoples Organisation (AZAPO)
• In September 1974, BC and SASO organized the "Viva Frelimo" rallies to celebrate the independence of Mozambique from Portuguese colonial rule.
• The apartheid government’s response to the growing influence of BC was severe: They arrested BC leaders and held trials.

Impact on labour

• Marked a significant shift in the nature and dynamics of trade unionism and worker activism.
• BCM empowered black South Africans politically and socially
• Led to more organized and politically conscious actions against apartheid's exploitative labor practices.
• One of the earliest indications of BC's influence on labor was evident during the 1973 strikes by tile and factory workers in Durban
• Strikes demonstrated an increasing political awareness among black workers
• Influence of BC on labor continued and was vividly demonstrated in the political activism that led to the Soweto Uprising in 1976
• Black Allied Workers Union (BAWU) was established to address the specific needs and challenges faced by black workers.
• Emergence of BAWU and the activism sparked by the BC movement heralded a new era in South African trade unionism.
• Set the stage for numerous similar protests throughout the apartheid era and beyond, contributing to the eventual downfall of the apartheid system.

Black Community Programmes

• Emerged as a vital aspect of the Black Consciousness movement in South Africa, particularly under the leadership of Steve Biko.
• Initiatives were developed in response to the apartheid regime's policies that restricted the freedoms of the black population
• Aimed to foster selfreliance and uplift black communities through a range of social, educational, and health services.
• Steve Biko redirected his energies towards the development of communityfocused programs
• Among the most impactful of these were the health centers like the Zanempilo Community Health Centre
• Also focused on economic projects that would enable communities to be economically independent, including the Zimele Trust Fund
• Another critical area of focus was Education.
• Played a significant role in reviving and nurturing cultural, political, and literary activities among the black population.
• Success of these programs demonstrated the viability and effectiveness of communitydriven initiatives in addressing social and economic issues.
• Have continued to influence community development projects in postapartheid South Africa.

1976 Soweto Uprising

• A pivotal event in the history of South Africa and a crucial moment in the antiapartheid struggle.
• The protests began when thousands of black students in Soweto marched in opposition to the apartheid government's directive enforcing Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in their schools.
• Decision to enforce Afrikaans was deeply unpopular among the black population and viewed as an attempt to further control and marginalize them.
• Students and young people in Soweto had been influenced by the teachings of Black Consciousness.
• Peaceful march by students turned violent when the police responded with live ammunition, resulting in the deaths of several students, including Hector Pieterson.
• Apartheid government was forced to relax the strict enforcement of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction
• Brutality experienced prompted many young South Africans to flee the country and join the ranks of the ANC and the PAC in exile.
• The South African government passed more repressive laws and banned several organizations associated with the Black Consciousness movement
• Demonstrated the power of youth activism and highlighted the importance of cultural and linguistic identity in the struggle against oppression.
• Intensifying global pressure on the South African government and significantly advancing the cause against apartheid.

Biko’s death

• Died on September 12, 1977, while in police custody
• Became a symbol of the brutal repression faced by antiapartheid activists
• Arrested on August 18, 1977, under the Terrorism Act
• Suffered severe beatings at the hands of the security police, resulting in a brain injury
• Transported naked and shackled in the back of a police vehicle over 700 miles from Port Elizabeth to Pretoria
• Initially, the government claimed that Biko had died as a result of a prolonged hunger strike
• Autopsy revealed that the actual cause of death was due to brain damage from the beatings
• News of Biko's death ignited outrage across South Africa and the world, bringing increased international attention to the brutality of apartheid
• Galvanized the antiapartheid movement both within and outside South Africa and spurred greater international activism
• Led to widespread condemnation and increased scrutiny of South Africa's detention policies.
• Damaged the apartheid government's international standing