Toxemia in Farm Animals

Toxemia

• A clinical systemic state arises from toxins circulating in the bloodstream.
• Toxins originate from bacteria, internal parasites or tissue cells.
• Illnesses caused by ingesting toxic plants or organic/inorganic poisons are classified as toxicity.
• In farm animals, the most common form is endotoxemia.
• Endotoxemia results from the release of endotoxins from the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria, like E. coli and Salmonella.
• Common diseases linked to toxemia include mastitis, pneumonia, and peritonitis, and septic metritis

Etiology and Classification of Toxins

• Toxins are classified into antigenic and metabolic types.
• Antigenic toxins are produced by bacteria, and occasionally, internal parasites.
• Bacteria or helminths act as antigens, stimulating the body to produce antibodies.
• Metabolic toxins come from incomplete elimination of toxic materials or abnormal metabolism.

Antigenic Toxins

• Exotoxins are proteins produced by bacteria and diffuse into the surrounding media.
• Clostridia species produce bacterial exotoxins like Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani.
• Exotoxins can be ingested (preformed), as in botulism from canned food, or produced in large amounts in the intestine (enterotoxaemia).

Endotoxins

• Endotoxins are lipopolysaccharides present in the outer cell wall of bacteria.
• When bacterial cell walls break down, endotoxins are released into the blood.
• Examples of endotoxins produced by E. coli and Salmonella and all gram-negative bacteria.
• Endotoxins can enter the bloodstream during severe localized infections, like coliform mastitis, potentially leading to septicemia.

Metabolic Toxins

• Metabolic toxins are produced from incomplete elimination of normally produced toxic body materials.
• Liver dysfunction decreases toxin excretion, leading to accumulation and toxemia.
• Intestinal obstruction results in toxic phenol and amine accumulation, causing autointoxication.
• Kidney diseases lead to uremia.
• Toxins also arise from abnormal metabolism, such as ketonemia and lactic acidemia.

Toxemia Pathogenesis

• Endotoxins are normally present in the intestine, absorbed in small amounts and removed by the liver.
• In hepatic failure, endotoxin levels increase in the plasma, resulting in endotoxemia.

Effects of Toxemia on Body Metabolism

• Carbohydrate metabolism leads to hypoglycemia, glycogenolysis, and increased pyruvate which results in acidosis.
• Protein metabolism leads to increased protein breakdown, elevating NPN levels and potentially causing uremia due to kidney failure.
• Total protein production increases through antibody stimulation, increasing globulin while decreasing albumin.
• Mineral metabolism leads to Hypoferremia and Hypozincemia.
• Copper levels rise in the blood along with ceruloplasmin enzyme.
• Electrolyte metabolism results in Hyponatremia, Hypochloremia, and Hypokalemia in cases of diarrhea.

Thermoregulation and Systemic Effects of Toxemia

• Bacterial endotoxins stimulate the release of interleukins (interleukins-1), resulting in fever.
• The heart experiences myocardial weakness from toxemia, leading to decreased cardiac output and circulatory failure.
• Liver function decreases.
• Kidney damage from toxemia leads to elevated NPN levels and albuminuria.
• Alimentary tract motility is inhibited, causing constipation, reduced appetite, and impaired digestion.
• Skeletal muscle weakness is manifested by weakness.
• Depression, dullness, and coma may occur in the nervous system.

Clinical Findings of Toxemia

• Acute toxemia (endotoxemia) leads to dullness & depression, anorexia, muscular weakness and possible fever.
• Heart rate increases, but the pulse is rapid as death may occur.
• Chronic toxemia leads to lethargy, loss of appetite, and wasting with failure of growth.
• Rapid disease progression in toxic shock can cause death without clinical signs.
• Tachycardia, hypothermia, pale mucous membranes, and muscle weakness characterize toxic shock.

Clinical Pathology of Toxemia

• In mild cases of toxemia, leukocytosis and neutrophilia occur.
• In severe cases, leucopenia and neutropenia develop.
• Serum biochemistry reveals low glucose, low iron, and low zinc levels..
• Blood levels of copper and NPN and total protein may increase.
• Albuminuria also occurs.

Treatment Principles for Toxemia

• Broad-spectrum antibiotics like oxytetracycline with penicillin/streptomycin are used for anti-microbial treatment.
• Anti-inflammatory drugs include glucocorticoids such as Dexamethasone.
• Flunixin meglumine serves as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-endotoxemic agent.
• Isotonic saline (0.9%) and hypertonic saline (7.2%) can be used.

Septicemia / Viremia

• Septicemia is an acute invasion of systemic circulation by pathogenic bacteria and localization in body organs.
• This is a disease compounded by toxemia and high numbers of microorganisms in the blood.
• Viremia is an invasion of the systemic circulation by pathogenic viruses, with localization in various body organs.
• Bacteremia results in only transitory bacteria, while Septicemia causes the agent to remain throughout.
• Intermittent systemic infection results in bacteremia, while constant systemic infection turns to septicemia.
• Direct endothelial damage and hemorrhage may occur.

Septicemia: Pathogenesis

• Infectious agents produce exotoxins or endotoxins, which lead to toxemia and fever.
• Pathogens localize in multiple organs, leading to severe lesions.

Septicemia: Clinical Signs

• Major signs include toxemia, fever, and sub mucosal hemorrhage, under the conjunctiva the and buccal mucosa & vulva
• Other signs are in joints, heart valves, and eyes.
• Neonatal septicemia, is seen in farm animals lasting hours or days are characterized by depression and rapid death.

Septicemia: Clinical Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

• Blood cultures isolate the causative agent during fever.
• Response to leukocytosis or leukopenia is bad and indicates a decrease in platelets and fibrinogen.
• Diagnosis involves culturing pathogens from the blood.
• Septicemia is confirmed through petechial hemorrhage.
• Septicemia's treatment is the same as that for toxemia and fever.

Disturbances of Body Temperature

• Body temperature reflects the balance between heat gain and heat loss.
• Heat gain results from absorption from environment, metabolic activity, and digestion of food.
• Heat loss is physical evaporation and balance controlled by the thermo-regulating center in the hypothalamus

Types of Temperature disturbance

• temperature can be Increased (Hyperthermia and Fever) or Decreased (Hypothermia)

Hyperthermia (Heat Stroke)

• It's an elevation of body temperature due to excessive heat production or deficient heat loss, with a purely physical cause.
• This can be due to high environmental temperature, neurogenic hyperthermia, insufficient fluid or excessive activity.

Hyperthermia Symptoms

• Elevated temperatures up to 39.5 c°, increased HR, sweating & salivation occur but absence of sweating.
• If the temperature reaches 41c°, respiration becomes shallow, rapid pulse, collapse, convulsion
• Death occurs when the temperature reaches 42.5c°

Differential diagnosis and Treatment of Hyperthermia

• Hyperthermia must be differentiated from fever & septicemia, examining the environment the reveal cause
• Must be treated by Cold application by immersion or spraying.
• Supportive treatment is given through IV administration of fluids, and providing a well ventilated and shaded place.

Fever (Pyrexia)

• It's a combination of hyperthermia and toxemia that comes from substances that produced in the blood.
• Septic fever is caused by bacteria, viruses or blood protozoa and is the most common type of fever.
• localized Injections cause abscess formation that may lead to a Septic fever.
• Aseptic fevers (without M.O.) are caused by chemical fevers and immune reactions.

Pathogenesis of Fever

• Exogenous pyrogens stimulate production cause fever in living organisms and are bacterial endotoxins.
• Endogenous pyrogens released from macrophages stimulate T & B lymphocyte and antigen which enhance the immune response.

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Fever

• A sign is elevation of body temperature (rarely exceeds 2.5 c above normal), anorexia with cessation.
• Symptoms such as muscle weakness and depression will be present, the pulse becomes weak and has quick breath.
• The rise in Oligouria indicates that there is an increase in thirst.
• Mild fever will be less than 1c° increase and Moderate will be between ( 1.7 - 2.2 )c° the Severe will increase by over ( 2.8)c°
• Septicemia is a presence petechial hemorrhage

Treatment of Fever

• Treatment involves treating the primary disease by using drugs or anti-blood parasites.
• Administering an antipyretic drug and fluid therapy helps with this condition

Hypothermia (subnormal temperature)

• Lowers the body temperature due to either excessive heat loss, and failure of compensatory.
• Can also be caused by cold temperatures and increase muscle activity of the muscle and peripheral constriction.
• Occurs as starved newborns in a cold environment

Hypothermia

• Neonatal hypothermia in babies is a major cause of morbidity.
• Seen in diseases because of cardiac output and causes acute ruminal.

Toxemia

• A clinical systemic state arises from toxins circulating in the bloodstream.
• Toxins originate from bacteria, internal parasites or tissue cells.
• Illnesses caused by ingesting toxic plants or organic/inorganic poisons are classified as toxicity.
• In farm animals, the most common form is endotoxemia.
• Endotoxemia results from the release of endotoxins from the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria, like E. coli and Salmonella.
• Common diseases linked to toxemia include mastitis, pneumonia, and peritonitis, and septic metritis

Etiology and Classification of Toxins

• Toxins are classified into antigenic and metabolic types.
• Antigenic toxins are produced by bacteria, and occasionally, internal parasites.
• Bacteria or helminths act as antigens, stimulating the body to produce antibodies.
• Metabolic toxins come from incomplete elimination of toxic materials or abnormal metabolism.

Antigenic Toxins

• Exotoxins are proteins produced by bacteria and diffuse into the surrounding media.
• Clostridia species produce bacterial exotoxins like Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani.
• Exotoxins can be ingested (preformed), as in botulism from canned food, or produced in large amounts in the intestine (enterotoxaemia).

Endotoxins

• Endotoxins are lipopolysaccharides present in the outer cell wall of bacteria.
• When bacterial cell walls break down, endotoxins are released into the blood.
• Examples of endotoxins produced by E. coli and Salmonella and all gram-negative bacteria.
• Endotoxins can enter the bloodstream during severe localized infections, like coliform mastitis, potentially leading to septicemia.

Metabolic Toxins

• Metabolic toxins are produced from incomplete elimination of normally produced toxic body materials.
• Liver dysfunction decreases toxin excretion, leading to accumulation and toxemia.
• Intestinal obstruction results in toxic phenol and amine accumulation, causing autointoxication.
• Kidney diseases lead to uremia.
• Toxins also arise from abnormal metabolism, such as ketonemia and lactic acidemia.

Toxemia Pathogenesis

• Endotoxins are normally present in the intestine, absorbed in small amounts and removed by the liver.
• In hepatic failure, endotoxin levels increase in the plasma, resulting in endotoxemia.

Effects of Toxemia on Body Metabolism

• Carbohydrate metabolism leads to hypoglycemia, glycogenolysis, and increased pyruvate which results in acidosis.
• Protein metabolism leads to increased protein breakdown, elevating NPN levels and potentially causing uremia due to kidney failure.
• Total protein production increases through antibody stimulation, increasing globulin while decreasing albumin.
• Mineral metabolism leads to Hypoferremia and Hypozincemia.
• Copper levels rise in the blood along with ceruloplasmin enzyme.
• Electrolyte metabolism results in Hyponatremia, Hypochloremia, and Hypokalemia in cases of diarrhea.

Thermoregulation and Systemic Effects of Toxemia

• Bacterial endotoxins stimulate the release of interleukins (interleukins-1), resulting in fever.
• The heart experiences myocardial weakness from toxemia, leading to decreased cardiac output and circulatory failure.
• Liver function decreases.
• Kidney damage from toxemia leads to elevated NPN levels and albuminuria.
• Alimentary tract motility is inhibited, causing constipation, reduced appetite, and impaired digestion.
• Skeletal muscle weakness is manifested by weakness.
• Depression, dullness, and coma may occur in the nervous system.

Clinical Findings of Toxemia

• Acute toxemia (endotoxemia) leads to dullness & depression, anorexia, muscular weakness and possible fever.
• Heart rate increases, but the pulse is rapid as death may occur.
• Chronic toxemia leads to lethargy, loss of appetite, and wasting with failure of growth.
• Rapid disease progression in toxic shock can cause death without clinical signs.
• Tachycardia, hypothermia, pale mucous membranes, and muscle weakness characterize toxic shock.

Clinical Pathology of Toxemia

• In mild cases of toxemia, leukocytosis and neutrophilia occur.
• In severe cases, leucopenia and neutropenia develop.
• Serum biochemistry reveals low glucose, low iron, and low zinc levels..
• Blood levels of copper and NPN and total protein may increase.
• Albuminuria also occurs.

Treatment Principles for Toxemia

• Broad-spectrum antibiotics like oxytetracycline with penicillin/streptomycin are used for anti-microbial treatment.
• Anti-inflammatory drugs include glucocorticoids such as Dexamethasone.
• Flunixin meglumine serves as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-endotoxemic agent.
• Isotonic saline (0.9%) and hypertonic saline (7.2%) can be used.

Septicemia / Viremia

• Septicemia is an acute invasion of systemic circulation by pathogenic bacteria and localization in body organs.
• This is a disease compounded by toxemia and high numbers of microorganisms in the blood.
• Viremia is an invasion of the systemic circulation by pathogenic viruses, with localization in various body organs.
• Bacteremia results in only transitory bacteria, while Septicemia causes the agent to remain throughout.
• Intermittent systemic infection results in bacteremia, while constant systemic infection turns to septicemia.
• Direct endothelial damage and hemorrhage may occur.

Septicemia: Pathogenesis

• Infectious agents produce exotoxins or endotoxins, which lead to toxemia and fever.
• Pathogens localize in multiple organs, leading to severe lesions.

Septicemia: Clinical Signs

• Major signs include toxemia, fever, and sub mucosal hemorrhage, under the conjunctiva the and buccal mucosa & vulva
• Other signs are in joints, heart valves, and eyes.
• Neonatal septicemia, is seen in farm animals lasting hours or days are characterized by depression and rapid death.

Septicemia: Clinical Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

• Blood cultures isolate the causative agent during fever.
• Response to leukocytosis or leukopenia is bad and indicates a decrease in platelets and fibrinogen.
• Diagnosis involves culturing pathogens from the blood.
• Septicemia is confirmed through petechial hemorrhage.
• Septicemia's treatment is the same as that for toxemia and fever.

Disturbances of Body Temperature

• Body temperature reflects the balance between heat gain and heat loss.
• Heat gain results from absorption from environment, metabolic activity, and digestion of food.
• Heat loss is physical evaporation and balance controlled by the thermo-regulating center in the hypothalamus

Types of Temperature disturbance

• temperature can be Increased (Hyperthermia and Fever) or Decreased (Hypothermia)

Hyperthermia (Heat Stroke)

• It's an elevation of body temperature due to excessive heat production or deficient heat loss, with a purely physical cause.
• This can be due to high environmental temperature, neurogenic hyperthermia, insufficient fluid or excessive activity.

Hyperthermia Symptoms

• Elevated temperatures up to 39.5 c°, increased HR, sweating & salivation occur but absence of sweating.
• If the temperature reaches 41c°, respiration becomes shallow, rapid pulse, collapse, convulsion
• Death occurs when the temperature reaches 42.5c°

Differential diagnosis and Treatment of Hyperthermia

• Hyperthermia must be differentiated from fever & septicemia, examining the environment the reveal cause
• Must be treated by Cold application by immersion or spraying.
• Supportive treatment is given through IV administration of fluids, and providing a well ventilated and shaded place.

Fever (Pyrexia)

• It's a combination of hyperthermia and toxemia that comes from substances that produced in the blood.
• Septic fever is caused by bacteria, viruses or blood protozoa and is the most common type of fever.
• localized Injections cause abscess formation that may lead to a Septic fever.
• Aseptic fevers (without M.O.) are caused by chemical fevers and immune reactions.

Pathogenesis of Fever

• Exogenous pyrogens stimulate production cause fever in living organisms and are bacterial endotoxins.
• Endogenous pyrogens released from macrophages stimulate T & B lymphocyte and antigen which enhance the immune response.

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Fever

• A sign is elevation of body temperature (rarely exceeds 2.5 c above normal), anorexia with cessation.
• Symptoms such as muscle weakness and depression will be present, the pulse becomes weak and has quick breath.
• The rise in Oligouria indicates that there is an increase in thirst.
• Mild fever will be less than 1c° increase and Moderate will be between ( 1.7 - 2.2 )c° the Severe will increase by over ( 2.8)c°
• Septicemia is a presence petechial hemorrhage

Treatment of Fever

• Treatment involves treating the primary disease by using drugs or anti-blood parasites.
• Administering an antipyretic drug and fluid therapy helps with this condition

Hypothermia (subnormal temperature)

• Lowers the body temperature due to either excessive heat loss, and failure of compensatory.
• Can also be caused by cold temperatures and increase muscle activity of the muscle and peripheral constriction.
• Occurs as starved newborns in a cold environment

Hypothermia

• Neonatal hypothermia in babies is a major cause of morbidity.
• Seen in diseases because of cardiac output and causes acute ruminal.