Tissues and Organ Systems

• Bigger size in the physics of size presents advantages but can also be a challenge.
• Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces, including the body's exterior and internal cavities.
• Connective tissue has cells suspended in an extracellular matrix, providing support and connection to other tissues.
• Major connective tissue types: adipose tissue (body fat), bone, cartilage, and blood.
• Muscle tissue is crucial for maintaining an upright body posture, facilitating movement, circulating blood, and aiding food passage in the digestive system.
• Skeletal muscle (striped muscle) is involved in everyday movements, attaching to bones via tendons for conscious control.
• Cardiac muscle is exclusively located in the heart walls.
• Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, the digestive tract, the uterus, and the urinary bladder.
• Organs are grouped into organ systems for specialized functions within the organism.
• Larger size facilitates the ingestion of smaller organisms/objects.
• Larger organisms face more challenges in being smaller.
• As organisms increase in size, physics impose additional burdens.
• Cell surface area is vital for diffusing gases, nutrients, and wastes.
• Metabolism requires O2 and nutrients while yielding CO2 and waste, necessitating adequate surface area.
• The need for surface area increases with volume.
• Multicellular organisms are defined by forming cell colonies.
• Sponges represent the earliest fossil evidence of multicellular organisms.
• Tissues comprise multiple cell types; organs consist of various tissue types.
• Cell colonies exhibit unique levels of specialization.
• Multicellular organisms must withstand external forces and safeguard cells within their environment.
• Adequate surface area is essential for diffusion to sustain metabolic activity.
• Substances are transported throughout organisms, including nutrients and wastes.

Epithelial Structure & Function

• Epithelial structure dictates its function.
• The skin serves as a barrier, providing waterproofing, rapid injury response, and immunity.
• Loss of blood and pathogen attacks are stopped by skin.
• The small intestine acts as a barrier between blood and tissue, facilitating gas and fluid exchange and immunity.
• Acts as a barrier to the external environment, supports nutrient absorption, and enzymatic digestion.
• Blood vessels act as barriers between blood and tissues, facilitate gas and fluid exchange, and transport immune cells throughout the body.

Connective Tissue

• Bone includes collagen (providing tensile strength) and calcium hydroxyapatite (providing compressive strength).
• Osteocytes maintain the ECM, osteoblasts replenish cells, and osteoclasts resorb calcium; the central canal carries blood.
• Cartilage is found in the knee, vertebral column, and trachea.
• Adipose tissue stores fat.

Muscle cells

• Muscle cells control voluntary movement, blood pumping, and material movement.
• Skeletal muscles shorten to bring bones closer.
• Smooth muscles contract toward the middle.
• Cardiac muscle fibers encircle heart chambers; stimulation causes chamber contraction and blood ejection through the valve.
• Fish heart has 2 chambers, amphibian/reptile heart has 3 chambers, and bird/mammal heart has 4 chambers.
• Nervous tissues enable awareness, movement, sensation, and homeostasis control.
• Integumentary, nervous, lymphatic, and urinary are organ systems.
• Skeletal, circulatory, digestive, and reproductive are organ systems.
• Muscular, endocrine, and respiratory, are organ systems.
• All organ systems plus one more (the tetrapos limb).
• The digestive system prepares food for utilization by the body.
• It is a barrier for invaders in food.
• Digestive enzymes and bile from the pancreas/gallbladder break food down.
• The stomach kills bacteria and aids in digestion via gastric glands.
• Digestion occurs in the small intestine.
• Water is absorbed, and waste is stored in the large intestine before defecation.
• Animals employ a tube system for substance transport across extended diffusion distances.
• The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels.
• The cardiac cycle involves blood circulation, oxygen delivery, and travel through arteries and veins.
• Blood is pumped body wide, and delivers oxygen, traveling through the arteries and veins.
• Pulmonary circulation goes to and from the lungs.
• Systemic circulation delivers blood to and from the body.
• The cardiovascular system transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, heat, hormones, immune cells, and antibodies.
• Arteries are vein and capillaries are blood vessels in the organism.
• Capillaries is where blood vessels across which diffusion occurs, in order to let substances in/out via capillaries.
• Capillary walls are extremely thin.
• Every cell is close to a capillary.

Composition of Blood

• Blood consists of blood cells and plasma, with the former about 45% and the latter 55%.
• Blood cells are produced in bone marrow.
• The respiratory system enables gas exchange between blood and the outside, regulates pH, and facilitates communication.
• Lungs, airways/sinuses, and rib cage/muscles take part in the respiration process.
• Gas exchange links the body and the outside air, and the lungs have a larger surface area.
• Alveoli, composed of thin cells and covered by blood vessels, create the lung's surface area.
• Oxygen enters and carbon dioxide leaves bodies through alveoli.

Airways

• Tubes are tubes which send air to and from the lungs.
• Airways are found in the nasal cavity where it moves through- the sinuses, trachea and finally the bronchi to reach the alveoli of the lungs

Respiration

• Respiration Inhalation
• Contract/lower diaphragm and intercostals increases chest volume for contraction.
• Low pressure causes air to rush in.
• Exhalation is when muscles relax, lungs recoil, decreasing volume increasing pressure which causes air to rush out.
• The endocrine system coordinates the body's functions by releasing hormones into the circulatory system to regulate targets.
• The hypothalamus serves as the neural control center.
• Multiple signaling glands form an axis.
• Organs with secondary endocrine functions include bone, kidneys, liver, heart, and gonads.
• Musculoskeletal System is broken down into the Muscular and Skeletal System, including the Axial and Appendicular.
• Skeletal provides strong support and leverage for movment.
• 270 bones make up at birth and ~206 after adulthood, depending.
• Vertebral column, rib cage, skull, and associated bones make up axial skeleton.
• Shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and bones of the upper/lower limbs make up appendicular skeleton.
• Skeletal System includes Gravitational support, levers for movement, protection of soft tissues, production of blood cells, storage of calcium, and regulatory hormone contribution.
• Under voluntary control of the nervous system.
• Connective tissues attach to bones on each end.
• Muscle tissue includes multiple bundles of muscle fibers.
• Muscle fibers are surround by connective tissues.
• Muscular System contains actins and sarconeres.
• Muscular System functions include gravitational support, force for movement, protection against blunt trauma, heat production via shivering, and energy molecule storage.
• Nervous System enables integral control of the body, either away cells.
• Neurons connect specific targets and send signals around the body.
• Parts include the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic system, in which the cell membrane structure leads to function.
• Integumentary System has provide the first barrier to the outside world.
• Epidermis is epithelium, dermis is connective tissue, and hypodermis is subcutaneous layer.

Layers of skin

• Layers include the Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
• Epidermis consists of basal stem cells while Dermis gives flexibility, blood flow, and support. Hypodermis is connective tissue, which insulates blood.
• The lymphatic system serves as an organism wide power source and cleans ups after cardiovascular activity.
• It is part of the circulatory and immune system and has vessels to carry fluid.

Lymph Nodes

• Lymph Nodes is where lymphocyte concentration is located in organisms.
• Splen, the thymus, the tonsils are lymphatic parts of the system.
• Urinary System eliminates waste, consisting of the kidneys.
• Functions include, elimating waste, regulation of blood pressure, controls electrocytes and metabolites.
• Consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The reproductive system plays a primary role in reproduction.
• Providing for fertilization and develops.
• Homologous structure can help us know how related species are as well as their position and look.
• Patterns extend from bones to catilage and vessels/nerves.
• Cell signaling aids coordination of organimsm environmental chances, which is how adaptation works.

Signals

• Some common singal terms are what is sent downstream, and what is recevied.
• All signals must be delivered bio chemically for reactions.
• There must be receptors- second messengers, and target mechanism
• Endorcrine, Nervous, Pracrine, Juxtacrine, and Direct are type of signils for Cell.
• Homrones released into the bloodstream provide coordination.
• Endocrine is the slow of communication compare to nervous.
• A neotransmitter is for systemic regulation.
• Synapse is where the upstream and down stream meet affecting single cells by cell-to cell through the fluids.
• Signals can be sent across various cells by cells connected to cells.
• Coordination can ocour by cell- to cell to keep cell talk.
• Homeostasis is when a sysmte maintins an uncnahging intner enivonment
• Varibles are affected and include- temperature fluid.
• Hormonal receptors and signals affect change.
• There is positive/ negative feedback loops which effect.

Feed Back Loops

• Feedback Loops have sensors to trigger change or not to (thermostat).
• Bodies can trigger signals to instigate adjustbacks to opitmal conditons, like hyper. Lower =Hypo
• Core = is critcal because it can effect kidney and heart
• Hypothermia is when heat is lost faster than its made causing issues, to be the opposite Hyperthermia/artic fox counter it.
• Homaeostatic falure is underling dsease.
• Body has many varibles to keep equal
• New traments show scientific despolines and improve humna health.

Biotechnology

• use organisms to make products and medicine
• new vaccine for humans
• 1 :vaccines
  • teach body hoe to fend off the dsease
  • safely expose physcial components
• mRNA and live vaccines are types to use for a more safe exposure
• 4 : contains oxide, that contains chemical toxic, dipteria oxide
• 5 : contains man made that make simialr to piece
• antibody bind and neuilzie
• can bind and neturalize by directly treat someone infected , but this is tempolarty
• Blood product that can clot/ and transfusions for clottign, packed cells and plasma with proteins is made is lab
• Cell and genere is concept for ste, to self renew cells
• Stem cells can replensish divide them
• First bone narrow transplant
• 2: ebrryouk cant trol differention
• 3 : plun stem
• they are alrady commined.