linguistica

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Questions and Answers

What is a primary strategy for improving time management?

Procrastinating on tasks until deadlines approach

Multitasking constantly throughout the day

Setting specific goals and priorities (correct)

Ignoring deadlines to reduce pressure

Which of the following is commonly considered a barrier to effective communication?

Emotional reactions during discussions (correct)

Active listening skills

Clear and concise messages

Feedback mechanisms

What is a beneficial outcome of regular exercise?

Weight gain in most cases

Improvement in mental health and clarity (correct)

Heightened stress levels

Increased fatigue and lethargy

Which strategy is most effective for conflict resolution?

Openly discussing perspectives and seeking compromise Signup and view all the answers

What approach is most effective for enhancing learning during study sessions?

Utilizing active recall and spaced repetition Signup and view all the answers

Quale tra queste opzioni rappresenta una metodologia poco efficace per la gestione del tempo?

Multitasking durante le attività Signup and view all the answers

Quale delle seguenti affermazioni è vera riguardo la comunicazione efficace?

L'empatia è un elemento chiave per la comunicazione efficace Signup and view all the answers

Quale tra i seguenti è un risultato negativo di una seduta di studio poco organizzata?

Aumento dello stress Signup and view all the answers

Quale delle seguenti tecniche non è considerata utile per risolvere i conflitti?

Imporre una soluzione Signup and view all the answers

Qual è uno degli svantaggi di un esercizio fisico irregolare?

Diminuzione della motivazione Signup and view all the answers

Quale metodo è considerato più efficace per gestire il tempo?

Pianificazione flessibile delle attività Signup and view all the answers

Quale dei seguenti fattori può aggravare le difficoltà nella comunicazione interpersonale?

Preconcetti e stereotipi Signup and view all the answers

Quale tra le seguenti pratiche è più vantaggiosa per mantenere un buon livello di motivazione durante lo studio?

Riconoscimenti e celebrazioni dei successi Signup and view all the answers

Quale delle seguenti è una pratica inefficace per risolvere i conflitti?

Evacuare i problemi Signup and view all the answers

Quale dei seguenti è uno svantaggio di un programma di esercizio fisico non regolare?

Rischio maggiore di infortuni Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Introduction to Linguistics I

Course instructor: Maurizio Cicilano
Course title: Linguistics I

Fundamentals of Linguistics

Definition of languages and language
Biological properties of language
Verbal language and historical-natural languages

General Linguistics

What is general linguistics?
What are its fields of action?
Why is it defined as "general"?
Why is it also called theoretical linguistics?
Why is it considered an "astorical" and "nomothetic" discipline?

Fields of Action

Substantive: determining and analyzing the principles and facts that constitute languages; interpreting the characteristics of languages according to general models
Methodological: notions, concepts, and research techniques; providing methods, examples, and description models for other disciplines

Why is it General

General Linguistics tries to provide a general explanation of linguistic phenomena, identifying principles and methods of analysis and description applicable to all languages.

Why is it Theoretical

It studies language itself, regardless of speakers and usage.
Theoretical linguistics focuses on the study of spoken language.
It's an interdisciplinary field with connections to sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and semiotics, which is sometimes considered an expanded area of linguistics, studying systems of symbols.

Why is it Descriptive and Nomothetic?

Descriptive: because it studies language in itself as a phenomenon to be described independently from its users and use.
Nomothetic: because, through an abstraction process, it seeks regularities present in all linguistic phenomena. Nomothetic = normatively

Definition of Language and Language

The communicative process generally occurs in 3 stages:
1. Mental processing of an idea
2. Mental formulation of the idea in linguistic terms
3. Expression of the linguistic formulation of an idea through sounds (phonemes) and writing (graphemes)
Linguistics primarily focuses on the third stage and the relationships between stages 2 and 3.
In summary, it examines linguistic signs and their relation to meaning.

Language/Language/General Linguistics Definitions

Language: the human ability to communicate using linguistic systems (called languages).
Languages: systematically linked oral signs with meanings that reflect historical and social contexts.
Connection between General Linguistics/Language/Language: General Linguistics focuses on Language, while Language manifests as Language.

Definition of Language (Code)

Language is a code that structures a system of signs with both a signifier (sound or symbol) and a signified (the concept).
These signs, at all levels are arbitrary and are capable of conveying any expressible experience—serving as a social tool for communication.
Language proficiency is internalized and manifested in individual behavior.

Biological Properties of Language

Innate: language is inherent and part of the individual's genetic makeup.
Unchangeable: language properties do not change over time.
Universal: language is present in all individuals of a species, regardless of geography and history.
Unlearnable and Unforgettable: Languages cannot be unlearned nor forgotten.
Signifier-signified Indifference: Languages manifest as links between signifiers and signifieds, without preference.

Verbal Language/Historical-Natural Languages

Verbal language: the ability to communicate using linguistic systems (languages).
Non-verbal languages: communication using vocal intonation, kinesics (body language), haptics (touch), proxemics (distance), and chronemics (time).
Historical-natural language: languages that arose spontaneously in human civilization and are still used today or were used in the past.
Historical-natural languages contrast with artificial languages (e.g., Esperanto) and formalized languages (e.g., programming languages).

Communication

Communication: the process and methods of transmitting information between individuals through a shared, agreed-upon code.
Communication always involves a receiver.
Communication requires at least two participants; both able to transmit and understand the same code.

Formal communication Model

A model of communication using elements identified by Roman Jakobson: - Sender - Channel - Context - Message - Receiver - Code

Coding and Decoding

Encoding: the process of forming a message by the sender using a code.
Decoding: the process of interpreting a message by the receiver using a code.

Linguistic Code

A code is a set of rules using signs (words) to convey meaning between a sender and a receiver.
Linguistic Code: the set of signs (words) and rules (grammar and syntax) that organize these signs in a language.

Linguistic Signs: Signifier/Signified/Referent

Sign: something that represents something else, (St Augustine)
Any object or figure conventionally used to express or represent another, more abstract thing (V for victory; an open hand for greeting).
Signifier: the physical form or sound of a linguistic sign.
Signified: the concept or meaning associated with a linguistic sign.
Referent: an external object or reality that a linguistic sign refers to.

Signification Process

Signification: the assigning of conceptual meaning to a sign.
Any object or concept of the physical universe can be represented by multiple signs.
Semiotics is the study of signification.

Linguistic Sign

Arbitrary: absent of natural or essential connection between a signifier's sound/form and its signified meaning.
Double Articulation: breaking down into smaller meaningful segments (morphs) and basic speech sounds (phones).

Linguistic Traits

Discreteness: existence of defined limits distinguishing various linguistic elements. The limited number of constituents such as (sounds).
Recursivity: application of the same procedures to an unlimited number of elements to generate new elements.
Productivity: The ability of language to create new messages by combining existing signs and ideas and adapting them to new contexts.
Displacement: the capacity to talk about things, events, and people not present in the immediate physical context of conversation, as well as times past or future.
Arbitrariness: Linguistic signs are not inherently connected in a natural or necessary way to their meanings; the link between meaning and sign is a social convention.
Dual Articulation: Structure of signs in two levels: first, they are split into basic meaningful elements (morphemes); second, morphemes are broken down into basic sounds (phones).
Cultural Transmission: languages are transmitted and acquired through social and cultural norms across generations.
Systematizing Complexity: Elements are not arranged randomly but in complex systems within the language.
Ambiguity: A single signifier can convey various meanings.

Language according to various Lingustist

Saussure: Langue (language as a system) vs Parole (language as utterances)
Saussure describes language as a social institution manifested through individual usage. The langue system, the social institution, is distinguished from parole—spoken language, which is its realization. The linguist's job is to analyze language based on the observation of spoken language.
Hjemlslev: The sign is a semantic function, correlating signifier and signified. A linguistic sign connects expressions and contents, and each is separated into form and substance.
Chomsky: Competence (innate knowledge of language structure) vs. Performance (actual language production in real contexts).
Chomsky views language as an innate cognitive ability, with a Language Acquisition Device. Competence, our internal knowledge of language, allows us to generate an unlimited number of grammatical sentences while performance is the actual usage of utterances in real contexts.

Linguistic Axis

Paradigmatic Axis: a set of linguistic elements, mutually exclusive, that can replace one another in a phrase. Language choices make up this axis; with limited options for each position in the phrase.
Syntagmatic axis: linear arrangement of language components in sentences, displaying the relationship between each component.

Generative Linguistics

Generative linguistics: Chomsky's linguistic theory considers grammar a finite set of rules capable of generating an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences. This theory emphasizes the mental aspect of language
Generative linguistics: a linguistic theory focused on the mental processes underlying language use.
Generative Grammar: A finite set of rules creates infinite grammatically correct sentences. General grammar is a theory of language.

Additional Topics

Properties/characteristics of languages in various sections.
Analysis of languages, diachronic-synchronic properties, linguistic axis, and other topics.
Linguistic families, including analyses of Indo-European languages and their branches in Europe.
Sociolinguistic variables: variations in language usage based on social factors, geographic location, time, communication medium, and social classes.

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