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Early Arab Lands

Nجد (Najd) is a vast land with valleys and deserts. It has scattered oases with farms. Rivers suitable for navigation are not present, only streams and plains.
Yemen Mountains are a variety of fertile valleys where date palms, sugarcane and various kinds of trees and fruits grow. Winters have snow (ice) and rainfall is prevalent in autumn and spring.
Hijaz is a rugged land with many valleys and ravines, especially near Mecca on the Red Sea coast. It has barren rocks, dry grounds and barren valleys, with sparse grass used for grazing. East of Hijaz is the land of Taif, renowned for fruit trees like apples, figs, pomegranates, apricots, and grapes.

Religious Beliefs in Pre-Islamic Arabia

Polytheism: Most Arabs followed polytheistic beliefs. Quraysh had idols inside and around the Kaaba, with Hubal being the most prominent. It was a red agate statue of a man with a broken right hand. Quraysh made a golden hand for it. Arabs used divination when needing guidance & casting lots. Idols existed throughout Arabia in the form of houses, trees, and carved or uncarved stones. There were an estimated 360 idols around the Kaaba. Quraysh placed idols there for the benefit of visiting tribes. Manah was one of the oldest idols and was the goddess of judgment, especially death. Other idols included Lat (in Taif) and al-Uzzā. Sabeans worshipped stars and planets; this religion was widespread in Yemen, Harran, and Upper Iraq. Zoroastrianism, originating from the prophet Zarathushtra in ancient Persia, was a dualistic religion regarding good and evil. The followers worshipped fire as a source of light, representing good. Arabs presented offerings to their idols, and marched in processions around their temples.
Other Beliefs: Judaism was present in Yemen, Wadi al-Qura, Khaybar, and Taima. Christianity existed among the tribes of Ghafil, Ghassan, and Quda'a in the north. Najran was a major Christian centre in Arabia. Some individuals in Arabia were known as Hanfis, or those who rejected idol worship and favoured monotheism, probably inspired by encounters with Jews and Christians.

The Prophet's Life Before Prophecy

The Prophet was born in 571 AD on a Monday, the 12th of Rabi' al-awwal, a year known as the Year of the Elephant. He was born to indigent parents. His father, Abdullah, died before his birth, and his upbringing was taken care of by his grandfather. When his grandfather died, his uncle, Abu Talib, took on the responsibility. His foster mother was a Bedouin woman.
The Prophet often accompanied his foster brothers looking after sheep at a young age. He later worked in trade and travelled to Yemen and Syria.
He married Khadijah when he was 25. She was a well-off widow in her 40s and impressed by his trustworthiness and honesty.

The Prophet's Revelation

The Prophet's revelations began with visions that appeared like the dawn.
His visions lasted six months, until the age of 40.
On Monday, the 17th of Ramadan, the angel Gabriel visited him and ordered him to read, prompting the first verses of the Quran.
He sought refuge from the fear and anxiety he felt with his wife Khadijah, and she comforted him and sought the advice of her cousin, Waraqa Ibn Nawfal, who was a devout Christian.
He returned regularly to the cave.

Early Followers of Islam

Khadijah, the Prophet's wife, was one of the earliest converts, along with Abu Bakr, the Prophet's close friend and a wealthy and influential member of Quraysh.
Other early converts included Ali, Zayd ibn Harithah, Uthman bn Affan, Zubayr ibn al-Awam, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, among others, along with prominent Qurayshi figures including Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah and al-'Arqam ibn Abi al-'Arqam, whose home served as a clandestine meeting place for early Muslims.
The early followers were known as individuals associated with the Prophet.
The Prophet's early call was limited to close followers due to fear of persecution.
The Prophet's call expanded to encompass numerous people from various backgrounds.

The Prophet's Migration to Abyssinia

Quraysh's opposition heightened pressure on the Prophet and his followers, notably the persecution of individuals.
The Prophet's followers sought refuge in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) because of the reported justice and tolerance in the land, particularly compared with challenges they faced in Arab tribes.
A group of ten men and four women initially migrated, eventually increasing to 83 men and 19 women, not including children.
Their host, the Negus, respected them, protected their lives, and improved their living conditions.
Some later returned to Mecca before the Prophet's emigration to Medina. Some lived in Ethiopia until the 7th year of the Hijra.

Quraysh Boycott of the Prophet's Family

Quraysh boycotted Bani Hashim and Bani Abd al-Muttalib, forbidding trade and marriage with them until they surrendered the Prophet to be killed.
This boycott lasted two or three years, isolating Bani Hashim in a section of Mecca, with exception to the sacred months where fighting was prohibited.
A pact between the two parties was created so that pilgrims could visit the Kaaba.

The Prophet's Call to Others

The Prophet sought new audiences to accept his message following the hardship against the Muslims in Mecca.
He travelled to Taif, where notable figures were invited but they resisted accepting his message.
The Messenger continued advocating for Islam during the Hajj season, inviting tribes to his cause.

The Prophet's Journey to Medina

The Prophet's message became known throughout the Arabian Peninsula.
The Prophet sought to find a new location for his followers, avoiding resistance from established tribes.
Abyssinia was considered an alternative, given its reported tolerance and justice.
The Prophet traveled to the city of Ta'if, which had an Arab community who did not oppose his message, however, this was not the choice made at the time.
He sought a new location that could support their religious freedom and maintain their security.
Tribes in Medina showed inclination towards the Prophet's message and supported Islam.
In Medina, a pact was established between the Muslims and the tribes.

The Pledge of 'Aqabah

The pledge of 'Aqabah was a pact with members of Medina's tribes, who had grown receptive to his message and shared the same anxieties and experiences as those who accompanied the Prophet.

The Hijrah (Migration to Medina)

Faced with increased persecution in Mecca, the Prophet was compelled to seek refuge elsewhere, leading to the Hijra, or migration, to Medina.
Quraysh conspired to assassinate him, leading to a plan for the Prophet and the first followers to leave Mecca and seek refuge in Medina, with the help of their followers there, to ensure the continuance of Islam.
This act was not without risk.

Medina Community & Constitution

Medina, following the Prophet's arrival, became a refuge for Muslims, forming a new community with a constitutional framework addressing relations with the various groups in the city including Muslims, Jews, and other non-Muslims.

The Wars

The Prophet led several military campaigns, known as ghazawat (plural of ghazwa).
Among these were major battles such as Badr, Uhud, and the Ditch (Khandaq).
These battles were often instigated by Quraysh and its allies in retaliation or to deter Muslims from continuing their expansion of the Islamic faith and spread throughout Arabia.

The Prophet's Death

The Prophet's death marked a pivotal point for the Islamic community.
His guidance and leadership were instrumental in uniting the Arab tribes under a common religion.

The Rightly Guided Caliphs

The Rashidun Caliphs (rightly guided caliphs) succeeded the Prophet in leading the Muslim community.
They inherited the task of consolidating the gains of Islam and governing the newly formed empire.

The Wars of the Riddah

Concerns arose over political succession following the Prophet's death leading to internal disputes and conflicts among the different tribes and their leaders.
Some groups rose up against the established authority and their new leader (Abu Bakr) in what came to be known as the Ridda Wars (wars of apostasy).
Caliph Abu Bakr faced opposition and challenges from tribes.
He sent military expeditions to address these rebellions.
These wars resulted in strengthening the political and religious structure of the Islamic state.

Conquests in the Levant and Egypt

Following the establishment of the caliphate, campaigns were launched to expand the empire.
Some factors contributing to successful conquests in the Levant and Egypt included existing alliances that made it easier to transition to Islam or to convert in the region.

The Conquests of Persia and Iraq

The conquests of Persia and Iraq involved military campaigns.
Factors contributing to the success of the Islamic campaigns included various issues that weakened the ruling dynasties at the time, paving the way for the Islamic armies to conquer the region.

Conquests of the Eastern Provinces

The conquests of the Eastern Provinces included battles, sieges and accommodations and agreements that were made with people of the region.

The Successors of the Prophet

The Prophet's successors faced various challenges and complexities in the newly formed empire.
They consolidated power and continued the spread of the Islamic faith.
The challenges they faced included issues of political, social and religious significance, like the wars of apostasy.

The Prophet's Character

The Prophet was known for his noble character and was highly regarded for his moral principles including trustworthiness, honesty, and compassion. These virtues resonated amongst those who surrounded him.