Theory of Mind Development
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Questions and Answers

Which component of love combines passion and intimacy?

  • Passionate
  • Romantic (correct)
  • Consummate
  • Companionate

What characterizes an avoidant attachment style?

  • Strong emotional connectivity
  • Fear of intimacy and dependency (correct)
  • Clinginess in relationships
  • Comfortable with dependence

In social exchange theory, what are relationships primarily based on?

  • Societal roles and expectations
  • Perceived costs and benefits (correct)
  • Emotional depth and personal history
  • Chemistry and attraction

How do individualistic cultures primarily view relationships?

<p>Emphasizing personal choice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin play in relationships according to biological theories?

<p>They influence bonding and trust (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental milestone is evident when infants demonstrate joint attention?

<p>Awareness of shared focus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in the context of Theory of Mind?

<p>Understanding others’ intentions and beliefs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age do most children begin to show success in false-belief tasks, such as the Sally-Anne task?

<p>4-5 years (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is most involved in perspective-taking?

<p>Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is most likely associated with difficulties in Theory of Mind in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)?

<p>Struggles to interpret facial expressions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do mirror neurons play in the context of Theory of Mind?

<p>They facilitate empathy and imitation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of advanced Theory of Mind typically seen in adolescence and adulthood?

<p>Understanding hidden motives in complex social scenarios (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory?

<p>Critical for forming new explicit memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method of memory retrieval involves recalling information without cues?

<p>Recall (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference in the context of memory?

<p>Old information interferes with new learning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of long-term memory is primarily concerned with facts and events?

<p>Explicit memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following memory techniques involves grouping information into manageable units?

<p>Chunking (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily affected by neuroplasticity in the context of memory?

<p>The formation and strengthening of neural connections (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the misinformation effect?

<p>Witnesses remembering details inaccurately after suggestive questioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in procedural memory?

<p>Cerebellum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does elaborative rehearsal play in memory improvement?

<p>Connecting new information to existing knowledge (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Natural Selection primarily focus on?

<p>Traits that enhance survival and reproduction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of selection involves traits that are attractive to potential mates?

<p>Intersexual Selection (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily explained by Parental Investment Theory?

<p>Differences in reproductive strategies between sexes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness' (EEA) refer to?

<p>Conditions under which human traits evolved (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Kin Selection contribute to survival?

<p>Through behaviors that support relatives' survival (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Reciprocal Altruism involve?

<p>Expecting future reciprocation for help given (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a trait that may have evolved through error management theory?

<p>Overestimating threats (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do humans retain preferences for high-calorie foods, according to evolutionary psychology?

<p>It was advantageous during times of scarcity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the psychological principle of adaptation focus on?

<p>Evolving traits to solve specific ancestral problems (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of social behavior, what is a key reason for punishing freeloaders?

<p>To maintain group cooperation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of operant conditioning?

<p>Consequences of behaviors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes vicarious reinforcement?

<p>Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, rewards are given after:

<p>A specific number of responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior by adding an aversive stimulus?

<p>Positive Punishment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning?

<p>Learning that is demonstrated only when there is an incentive (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behaviors they observe?

<p>Bobo Doll Experiment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cognitive maps are defined as:

<p>Mental representations of spatial layouts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does negative reinforcement accomplish in behavioral learning?

<p>Removes an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Systematic desensitization is primarily used in which application of conditioning?

<p>Behavior therapy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of learning does cognitive learning prioritize?

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Which type of motivation is driven by internal factors such as curiosity and personal goals?

<p>Intrinsic motivation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of chronic stress on cognitive function?

<p>Impairs memory and problem-solving (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a growth mindset impact a student's learning process?

<p>Fosters resilience and a willingness to improve (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method of learning involves direct experience and critical reflection on that experience?

<p>Experiential learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant benefit of tailoring teaching strategies to diverse learning styles?

<p>Enhances engagement and effectiveness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychological principle explains how natural and sexual selection affects human behavior?

<p>Evolutionary psychology (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary goal of self-regulated learning?

<p>To monitor progress and adjust strategies (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is understanding biological, cognitive, environmental, and emotional factors important for learning?

<p>It supports the design of effective learning strategies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key component of natural selection in evolutionary psychology?

<p>Traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of selection specifically involves traits that increase mating success?

<p>Sexual Selection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Parental Investment Theory primarily explain?

<p>Differences in mating strategies based on reproductive costs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is characterized by altruistic behaviors toward genetic relatives?

<p>Kin Selection (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the conditions under which human psychological traits evolved?

<p>Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychological principle focuses on evolving traits to solve specific problems faced by ancestors?

<p>Adaptation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might be a reason for punishing freeloaders in a cooperative group according to evolutionary psychology?

<p>To maintain group cooperation and strength. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Trichromatic Theory of color vision propose?

<p>It suggests there are three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue light. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a monocular cue for depth perception?

<p>Retinal disparity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by difficulty focusing on nearby objects?

<p>Hyperopia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which visual processing theory explains phenomena such as afterimages?

<p>Opponent-Process Theory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes retinal disparity?

<p>It provides depth information through differences in images between the two eyes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of love combines intimacy and commitment?

<p>Companionate love (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the characteristics of a secure attachment style in adults?

<p>Comfortable with intimacy and dependence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary method of vision correction for refractive errors?

<p>Eyeglasses and contact lenses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common type of color blindness?

<p>Red-green color blindness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that relationships are maintained based on perceived costs and benefits?

<p>Social exchange theory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In collectivist cultures, which aspect is prioritized in relationships?

<p>Societal and familial expectations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protective measure is recommended for maintaining eye health?

<p>Regular eye examinations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily associated with bonding and trust in relationships?

<p>Oxytocin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do changing norms regarding gender roles primarily lead to?

<p>Enhanced acceptance of diverse identities (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the application of social exchange theory in therapy focus on?

<p>Minimizing perceived costs in relationships (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is a key influencer on perceptions of ideal relationships due to media representation?

<p>Reinforcement of stereotypes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do cones play in the visual system?

<p>Detect color and fine detail (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)?

<p>Difficulty integrating sensory inputs effectively (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What sensation is typically associated with Phantom Limb Syndrome?

<p>Pain or sensation in an amputated limb (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the applications of sensory and perceptual research in education?

<p>Understanding sensory integration to teach children (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In vision, what characteristic of light waves determines the perceived color?

<p>Wavelength (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure of the eye is primarily responsible for regulating light entry?

<p>Pupil (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is agnosia commonly characterized by?

<p>Inability to recognize familiar objects (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the eye helps fine-tune focus onto the retina?

<p>Lens (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of photoreceptors in the process of vision?

<p>Convert light waves into electrical signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of absolute threshold in sensation?

<p>Detecting the faintest sound in a quiet room (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What principle describes the process of grouping elements that are close together?

<p>Proximity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the gustatory cortex?

<p>To interpret taste signals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory process involves converting physical stimuli into neural signals?

<p>Transduction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of depth perception cue involves the use of both eyes?

<p>Retinal disparity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'multimodal perception' refer to?

<p>The integration of information from multiple senses to create a unified perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which Gestalt principle describes perceiving incomplete shapes as complete?

<p>Closure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from our own, and that these mental states influence their behavior.

Joint Attention

The ability to share attention with another person, like following their gaze or pointing at an object.

Pretend Play

Play where children act out roles and use objects to represent other things, demonstrating an understanding of symbolic thought and other people's perspectives.

False-Belief Tasks

Tests a child's ability to understand that someone else can have a belief that is different from reality.

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Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC)

A brain region involved in understanding others' intentions and beliefs, crucial for Theory of Mind.

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Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ)

A brain region that helps us understand others' goals and take their perspective, essential for Theory of Mind.

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Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire both when we perform an action and when we observe someone else performing it, contributing to empathy and understanding of others.

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Sensation

The process of detecting physical stimuli like light, sound, and pressure, and sending that information to the brain.

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Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, allowing us to make sense of the world around us.

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Romantic Love

A type of love that includes both passion and intimacy, often characterized by strong emotional and physical attraction.

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Companionate Love

A type of love that combines intimacy and commitment, based on deep friendship, shared experiences, and mutual trust.

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Consummate Love

A type of love that includes all three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment.

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Short-Term Memory (STM)

A temporary storage system that can hold about 7 items for 20-30 seconds. Think of it like a mental notepad!

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A permanent storage system with seemingly unlimited capacity where you can store memories for long periods of time.

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Explicit Memories

Memories that are consciously recalled, like facts you learn in school (semantic) or experiences you've had (episodic).

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Implicit Memories

Memories that are not consciously recalled, like riding a bike or the feeling of fear when seeing a spider.

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Retrieval

The process of accessing information stored in your brain.

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Recall

Remembering information without any cues, like writing an essay.

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Recognition

Identifying information you've learned before, like choosing the correct answer on a multiple-choice test.

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Relearning

Learning something again faster than the first time, demonstrating that you've retained some knowledge.

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Decay

The process of forgetting information due to time passing without practice or rehearsal.

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Classical Conditioning

A learning process where an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, causing the neutral stimulus to eventually elicit the same response.

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Operant Conditioning

A learning process where an organism learns to associate a behavior with its consequences. Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

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Negative Reinforcement

A type of operant conditioning where a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. For example, turning off an alarm clock to stop it from making noise.

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Positive Punishment

A type of operant conditioning where a behavior is weakened by the addition of an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. For example, receiving a traffic ticket for speeding.

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Negative Punishment

A type of operant conditioning where a behavior is weakened by the removal of a desirable stimulus after the behavior occurs. For example, losing phone privileges for misbehaving.

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Continuous Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given for every occurrence of the desired behavior. For example, giving a dog a treat for every time it sits on command.

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Partial Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given only intermittently for the desired behavior. This can lead to longer-lasting learning.

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Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment

A type of observational learning where an observer learns by watching the consequences of a model's behavior. Positive consequences increase the likelihood of imitating the behavior, while negative consequences decrease it.

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Modeling

A type of observational learning where an observer learns by imitating the behaviors of a model, especially when the model is perceived as competent or respected. It is influenced by factors such as attention, retention, and motivation.

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Latent Learning

A type of learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so. For example, a rat navigating a maze may learn the layout without showing it until rewarded for reaching the end.

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Natural Selection

Traits that increase an organism's chances of surviving and reproducing are more likely to be passed down to future generations.

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Sexual Selection

Traits that increase mating success are favoured, even if they don't directly improve survival.

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Adaptation

Traits that help solve specific problems faced by our ancestors.

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Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA)

The environment in which humans evolved their psychological traits.

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Parental Investment Theory

Explains sex differences in mating strategies based on the different reproductive costs for males and females.

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Kin Selection

Helping relatives, even at a cost to oneself, because it increases the chances of shared genes surviving.

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Reciprocal Altruism

Helping non-relatives with the expectation of future reciprocity.

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Error Management Theory (EMT)

Our minds evolved cognitive biases to minimize costly errors in decision-making.

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Mating and Relationships (Evolutionary Psychology)

Evolutionary Psychology can explain mate preferences, jealousy, and relationship dynamics.

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Parenting (Evolutionary Psychology)

Evolutionary Psychology focuses on the protective instincts towards offspring.

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Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how our psychological traits are shaped by evolutionary processes, including natural and sexual selection.

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Self-Efficacy

A belief in one's ability to succeed, which influences persistence and performance.

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Experiential Learning

Learning through direct experience and reflection. It involves actively engaging in a task and then analyzing the experience to gain understanding.

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Observational Learning

A learning style that involves watching and imitating others' behaviors.

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Self-Regulated Learning

Focuses on the process of setting goals, monitoring progress, and adjusting learning strategies to achieve desired outcomes.

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Intrinsic Motivation

A type of motivation driven by internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction, curiosity, or a sense of accomplishment.

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Transduction

Conversion of physical stimuli into neural signals.

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Absolute Threshold

The weakest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected.

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Difference Threshold

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.

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Multimodal Perception

The integration of information from multiple senses to create a unified perception.

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Depth Perception

The ability to perceive spatial relationships and depth.

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Gestalt Principles

A set of principles explaining how we organize and perceive elements as a whole.

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Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)

A condition where individuals have difficulty integrating sensory information in a way that allows for normal functioning.

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Phantom Limb Syndrome

The experience of feeling pain or the presence of a limb that has been amputated.

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Agnosia

An inability to recognize objects, sounds, or smells despite intact sensory function.

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Vision

The ability to detect and interpret light waves through the visual system.

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Cornea

Transparent outer layer of the eye that focuses light onto the retina.

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Pupil

Adjustable opening in the eye that regulates the amount of light entering.

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Attachment Theory

A theory suggesting that early childhood experiences with caregivers shape our attachment styles, which influence how we approach romantic relationships.

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Secure Attachment

An attachment style characterized by a strong desire for intimacy and a comfortable reliance on partners.

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Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style characterized by a fear of intimacy and a desire for independence.

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Anxious Attachment

An attachment style characterized by intense desires for closeness, coupled with anxieties about abandonment.

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Social Exchange Theory

A theory that suggests relationships are formed and maintained based on a perceived balance of costs and benefits.

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Trichromatic Theory

Based on the idea that there are three types of cones in the eye that are sensitive to red, green, and blue light. This theory explains how we can perceive a wide range of colors by mixing these three primary colors at the level of the photoreceptors.

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Opponent-Process Theory

Proposes that color perception is based on opposing pairs of colors: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. It explains why we see afterimages (a negative image of a previous visual stimulus) and other visual phenomena that the trichromatic theory cannot explain.

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Retinal Disparity

The difference in the images that each eye sees of the same object. This difference provides information about depth and distance.

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Convergence

The inward movement of the eyes as they focus on an object that is getting closer. This helps the brain determine the distance of the object.

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Linear Perspective

An illusion of depth created by parallel lines that appear to converge in the distance. This is why roads look like they get narrower as they go off into the distance.

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Texture Gradient

A monocular depth cue that refers to the texture of surfaces becoming less detailed and less distinct as they recede into the distance.

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Interposition

A monocular depth cue that suggests objects that are partially blocked by other objects are closer than the objects that are blocking them.

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Myopia (nearsightedness)

A vision disorder where an individual has difficulty seeing distant objects clearly

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Study Notes

Theory of Mind (ToM)

  • ToM refers to the ability to comprehend that others have mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions, impacting their behavior.
  • Crucial for social cognition and interpersonal interactions.
  • Understanding ToM provides insight into developmental milestones and disorders, like autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Development of ToM

  • Early Signs in Infancy:
    • Joint Attention: Infants follow others' gazes and gestures, indicating awareness of shared focus.
    • Example: A baby looking at an object a caregiver points to.
  • Pretend Play:
    • Emerging around age 2, showcasing an understanding of symbolic thought and others' perspectives.
  • False-Belief Tasks:
    • Tests a child's understanding that someone else could hold a different belief than reality.
    • Example: The Sally-Anne task; Sally places a ball in a basket and leaves; Anne moves the ball; the child is asked where Sally will look for it.
    • Success demonstrates comprehension of others' perspectives, typically developing around ages 4-5.
  • Advanced ToM (Adolescence/Adulthood):
    • Capacity to interpret complex social situations and understand subtle emotional states.
    • Example: Understanding sarcasm or hidden motives.

Neuroscience of ToM

  • Key brain regions include the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), involved in processing others' intentions and beliefs.

ToM and Disorders

  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Individuals with ASD often have difficulty with ToM, impacting their understanding of others' perspectives.
    • Challenges interpreting facial expressions or non-verbal cues.
  • Schizophrenia: Impaired ToM contributes to misunderstanding and navigating social interactions.
  • Other disorders: ToM deficits are also observed in conditions like ADHD and social anxiety disorders.

Cultural and Social Influences on ToM

  • Development varies culturally due to norms and parenting styles.
    • Example: Collectivist cultures emphasizing group harmony may foster earlier understanding of shared intentions.
  • Social interaction and language skills enhance ToM development.
    • Strong language facilitates discussions and understanding of mental states.

Applications of ToM Research

  • Education: Designing programs to foster perspective-taking and empathy in children. Interventions for ASD related to social skills and emotional recognition.
  • Therapy: Addressing memory-related disorders like Alzheimer's and PTSD.
  • Workplace: Improving employee training using memory optimization techniques.
  • Law and Criminal Justice: Increasing the reliability of eyewitness testimonies by reducing the misinformation effect.

Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval)

  • Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

  • Central to learning, decision-making, and personal identity.

  • Important for addressing memory challenges like amnesia or forgetting.

  • Stages of Memory:

    • Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a storable format (visual, acoustic, semantic).
    • Factors influencing encoding: Attention, focus, and processing depth.
    • Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time. Memory systems include sensory memory (brief storage), short-term memory (limited capacity), and long-term memory (permanent storage).
    • Retrieval: Accessing stored information (recall, recognition, relearning).

The Brain and Memory

  • Key Brain Structures:
    • Hippocampus (forming explicit memories).
    • Amygdala (enhancing memory based on emotions).
    • Cerebellum (procedural and motor memory).
    • Prefrontal Cortex (working memory, decision-making).
  • Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize neural connections, crucial for memory formation and learning.

Memory Processes and Errors

  • Forgetting: Decay and interference (proactive - old info interfering, retroactive - new info interfering).
  • False Memories: Inaccurate recollections influenced by suggestion or misinformation (e.g., misinformation effect).
  • Reconstructive Memory: Memory is not a perfect replay but reconstructed from beliefs, knowledge, and context.

Improving Memory

  • Techniques: Chunking, mnemonics, spaced practice, and elaboration.
  • Healthy Habits: Adequate sleep, regular exercise, balanced diet, stress reduction.

Conditioning and Learning

  • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.

  • Conditioning explains how behaviors are acquired, maintained, and modified through association and consequences.

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.

    • Key components: US, UR, CS, CR
    • Processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences; behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

    • Key components: Reinforcement (positive/negative), punishment (positive/negative).
    • Schedules of reinforcement: continuous, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio

Observational Learning

  • Learning by observing others' behaviors and consequences.
  • Key concepts: modeling, vicarious reinforcement/punishment.
  • Example: Bobo doll experiment.

Cognitive Learning

  • Emphasizes mental processes (e.g., insight, memory, problem solving).
  • Key concepts: latent learning, cognitive maps, insight learning.

Applications of Conditioning and Learning

  • Education, Therapy, Workplace, Parenting

Factors Influencing Learning

  • Biological Factors:
    • Neuroplasticity (brain's ability to reorganize).
    • Genetic influences.
    • Critical periods.
    • Health and nutrition.
  • Cognitive Factors:
    • Memory processes (encoding, storage, retrieval).
    • Attention.
    • Metacognition (awareness of learning strategies).
    • Prior knowledge.
  • Environmental Factors:
    • Learning environment (structured, supportive).
    • Social interactions (collaborative learning).
    • Cultural context.
    • Access to resources (textbooks, technology).
  • Emotional and Psychological Factors:
    • Motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic).
    • Stress and anxiety.
    • Self-efficacy (belief in ability to succeed).
    • Mindset.

Types of Learning

  • Observational Learning (learning by watching others).
  • Experiential Learning (learning through experience).
  • Self-Regulated Learning (setting goals, monitoring progress, adjusting strategies).

Evolutionary Psychology

  • Definition: Examines evolutionary principles (natural, sexual selection) shaping psychological processes and behaviors.
  • Key Principles:
    • Natural Selection: Traits enhancing survival/reproduction are favored.
    • Sexual Selection: Traits increasing mating success are favored (Intersexual - attractive, Intrasexual - competition).
    • Adaptation: Psychological and behavioral traits evolved to solve ancestral problems.
    • Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA): Conditions where many human traits evolved.
  • Major Theories:
    • Parental Investment Theory: Sex differences in mating strategies due to reproductive costs.
    • Kin Selection: Altruistic behavior towards relatives, shared genes.
  • Applications: Mating, relationships, parenting, social behavior.
  • Critiques: Speculative nature, cultural variation, reductionism, gender stereotyping.

Gender and Love

  • Examines how biological, psychological, and cultural influences shape gender identity and romantic relationships.
  • Key Concepts:
    • Gender vs Biological Sex
    • Gender roles and stereotypes
    • Gender dysphoria
  • Theories of Love:
    • Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love (intimacy, passion, commitment)
  • Attachment Theory: Attachment styles in childhood affect adult relationships.
  • Social Exchange Theory: Relationships based on perceived costs and benefits.
  • Cultural Influences: Individualistic vs. collectivist values in partner choice.

Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation: Detecting physical stimuli (e.g., light, sound) and transmitting to the brain.
  • Perception: Organizing and interpreting sensory information.
  • Sensory Modalities:
    • Vision (light waves, photoreceptors, visual cortex).
    • Hearing (sound waves, hair cells, auditory cortex).
    • Touch (pressure, temperature, pain, somatosensory cortex).
    • Taste (chemicals, taste buds, gustatory cortex).
    • Smell (airborne molecules, olfactory receptors, olfactory bulb).
  • Sensory Processes:
    • Transduction (converting physical stimuli into neural signals).
    • Thresholds (absolute, difference)
    • Sensory adaptation.
  • Perceptual Organization:
    • Gestalt principles (figure-ground, proximity, similarity).
    • Depth perception (binocular/monocular cues).
  • Multimodal Perception: Integration of information from multiple senses.
  • Disorders: Sensory processing disorder (SPD), phantom limb syndrome, agnosia.

Vision

  • The Eye's Anatomy: cornea, pupil, lens, retina.
  • Visual Processing: photoreceptors (rods/cones), neural pathways optic nerve to visual cortex, color vision theories. Includes afterimages and visual phenomena not accounted for by trichromatic theory.

Hearing

  • The Ear's Anatomy: outer, middle, inner ear.
  • Auditory Processing: sound waves, hair cells, auditory nerve, auditory cortex, theories of auditory perception (place theory, frequency theory, volley principle). Includes binaural hearing (sound localization, echolocation).

Improving Eye/Hearing Health

  • Protective measures, regular checks, healthy habits. Includes use of earplugs and noise canceling devices. Also emphasizes regular checkups and educating the public about risks of prolonged/loud sounds.

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