Theory Characteristics and Causality Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What is a primary factor that influences street robbers' choice of attack location?

Victim's wealth

Public perception of crime rates

Time of day

Economic analysis similar to business location choices (correct)

What demographic trend is observed in street robbery offenders?

The age crime curve shows robbery peaks between ages 16-20. (correct)

Most robbers are over the age of 30.

Robbery rates increase steadily with age.

Robbery is equally common among all age groups.

What is a notable statistic concerning the gender of street robbers?

Gender has no impact on robbery rates.

Females commit robbery more frequently than males.

Only 10% of street robbers are female. (correct)

Females are more likely to be arrested for robbery than males.

What types of variables are key in determining the attractiveness of a location for street robbery?

Availability of cash economies and business marketing information Signup and view all the answers

How many street robbery cases were analyzed in the study mentioned?

About 13,000 cleared robbery cases Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of a theory refers to the ability to explain a phenomenon in the simplest terms?

Parsimony Signup and view all the answers

What indicates the extent to which a theory can be tested?

Testability Signup and view all the answers

Which criterion must be fulfilled to establish causality in a theory?

Temporal ordering Signup and view all the answers

Empirical validity in a theory refers to what?

Support by scientific research Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is essential for a theory to have wide scope?

It should explain many phenomena Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic suggests that a theory should make sense in terms of its concepts and propositions?

Logical consistency Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a criterion for demonstrating causality?

Testability Signup and view all the answers

In a theoretical framework, what do policy implications signify?

Realistic guidance for societal responses Signup and view all the answers

Criminal activity is primarily linked to which characteristic of self-control theory?

Scope Signup and view all the answers

What does the correlation/covariation criterion entail?

Changes in the predictor are associated with changes in the outcome Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of specific deterrence?

Punishing the individual to reduce their future offending Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples best represents general deterrence?

A public figure is executed as a result of capital punishment Signup and view all the answers

What did the hedonistic calculus refer to in deterrence theory?

Weighing pleasure versus pain in decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the Panopticon prison design?

It features a 360-degree visual monitoring system Signup and view all the answers

What issue is highlighted by the ecological fallacy in deterrence research?

Using group data to make assumptions about individual behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the role of certainty in deterrence is true?

Increased certainty of punishment is associated with reduced crime rates Signup and view all the answers

What type of studies characterized the first phase of deterrence theory research?

Aggregate studies measuring crime ratios and punishments Signup and view all the answers

What does mixed evidence for the severity of punishment imply in deterrence theory?

The importance of severity varies significantly by crime type Signup and view all the answers

What factor significantly decreases the risk of punishment for street robbers?

Operating in easily accessible blocks near public transit Signup and view all the answers

According to Routine Activities Theory, what characterizes the targets preferred by robbers?

Areas with suitable targets and lack of capable guardians Signup and view all the answers

What improvement led to a significant decrease in crime according to the findings mentioned?

Enhanced street lighting in community areas Signup and view all the answers

What misconception was identified regarding the effect of street lighting on crime rates?

There is no correlation between lighting and crime reduction Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes the increased reward for robbers due to the presence of cash economies?

Deterrence Theory Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of the studies conducted by Farrington & Welsh (2002)?

To determine the impact of improved street lighting on crime Signup and view all the answers

What is a common reason why street robbers prefer areas near their home?

They have better knowledge of escape routes Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the meta-analysis conducted by Farrington & Welsh regarding crime rates in improved lighting areas?

Crime reduced by 20% in improved lighting areas Signup and view all the answers

What is identified as a significant effect leading to crime reduction in communities?

Greater community pride and cohesion Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors influences robbers' choice of target demographic?

Neighborhoods where the majority population resembles their own background Signup and view all the answers

What element of causality is exemplified by asking about peers and violent behavior within the same six-month period?

Temporal order Signup and view all the answers

If students taller than 5 ft 8 inches score higher on a quiz, which causality concern is most relevant?

Non-spuriousness Signup and view all the answers

The Classical School emphasizes which key element as an individual's basis for committing a crime?

Rational choice and free will Signup and view all the answers

Which theorist is considered the Father of the Classical School and emphasized deterrence theory?

Beccaria Signup and view all the answers

The concept of social contract in criminal justice refers to what?

The agreement between citizens to obey laws in exchange for protection Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of deterrence theory?

Characteristics of punishment affecting crime decisions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following elements must be considered to correctly apply the Classical School's concepts?

Individuals' ability to weigh consequences Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'celerity' refer to in the context of deterrence?

The swiftness of punishment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about punishment is crucial for its effectiveness in deterring crime?

It must be swift, certain, and appropriate in severity. Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher proposed that fear of punishment could deter crime based on rational choice?

Beccaria Signup and view all the answers

How does the Classical School view the relationship between crime and free will?

Individuals make free choices regarding criminal behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What misconception is associated with ecological fallacy in criminal analysis?

Assuming individual behavior based on group data Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of crime does 'Spuriousness' relate to in causality?

A correlation influenced by another variable Signup and view all the answers

What describes the 'get tough agenda' aligned with the Classical School?

Increased focus on deterrence through severe penalties Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Characteristics of Theory

Parsimony: Explaining a phenomenon in the simplest terms. The simpler, the better. Self-control Theory: the simplest theory.
Scope: The range of phenomena a theory aims to explain. A broader scope is better, explaining more with one theory.
Logical Consistency: The theory should make sense in terms of its concepts and propositions.
Testability: The extent to which a theory can be scientifically evaluated. Some theories are untestable.
Empirical Validity: The theory's supported by scientific research. If it has good validity, it is accurate.
Policy Implications: The extent to which a theory provides useful guidance for societal change.

Causality

Causation is the relationship between cause and effect.
Predictor Variable (X): The independent variable, what's being studied.
Outcome Variable (Y): The dependent variable, the consequence of the predictor.
Temporal Ordering: The predictor variable (X) must come before the outcome variable (Y) for causation.
Correlation/Covariation: A change in the predictor (X) must be associated with a change in (Y) to show a relationship.
Accounting for Spuriousness: There must be no other variable that could be causing the observed association between 'X' and 'Y'.

Pre-Classical Criminology

Supernatural causes of crime: storms, evil spirits, full moons
Inhumane responses: skull breaking, stoning, exorcism

Classical Criminology

Focuses on free will, choice, and weighing costs against benefits.
Free will: People make decisions without external influences.
Age of Enlightenment:
- Hobbes: People in society are naturally selfish and at war with one another, needing rules and common authority to avoid fear.
- Beccaria: People weigh consequences of their actions, making crime a choice. Emphasized the "social contract" where citizens give up certain rights for protection.
  - On Crimes and Punishments:
    - Father of the Classical School and deterrence theory
    - Focused on free will and choice
    - Advocate for laws determined by legislation, not judges, to prevent unequal treatment
    - Laws should focus on the act, not intent (actus reus vs. mens rea)
    - Against torture and in favor of confronting witnesses
    - Education is key to reducing crime
    - Against the death penalty, violates the social contract and is not a deterrent
    - Prevention is better than punishment

Classical Continued

Individuals are rational, making decisions by weighing the pros and cons.
Crime is a choice.

Deterrence Theory

Focuses on how punishments deter crime. Emphasises swift, certain, and severe punishments.
Celerity/Swiftness: Quick punishments are more effective in deterring crime. CJ system is too slow.
Certainty: Guaranteed punishment is the greatest deterrent. Most important.
Severity: The potential penalty must outweigh the benefits of offending.
Specific Deterrence: Punishments aimed at preventing future offenses by the specific offender.
General Deterrence: Punishments aimed at deterring the larger public from committing crime.
Hedonistic Calculus: Weighing the pleasure of committing the crime versus the pain of punishment.
Panopticon: Prison design for 360-degree surveillance, used in Europe and early PA prisons.

Deterrence Theory Research

Phase 1 - Aggregate Studies:
- Measured certainty and severity of punishment.
- Mixed results: certainty was associated with less crime, but severity had mixed results.
- Problem: Ecological Fallacy Using aggregated data (group level) to draw conclusions about individuals (micro level).

Street Robbery Study (Phase 2 - Individual Studies)

Goal: Understand how street robbers decide where to commit crimes.
Based on economic principles, like choosing the location for a new store.
Data: Analysis of 13,000 cleared armed robbery cases with arrests.
Robbery hotspots:
- Blocks with legal and illegal cash economies (including drug dealing, prostitution, gambling)
- Blocks with easy access, near public transit, and near robbers' homes.

Street Lighting Study (Phase 3 - Controlled Studies)

Meta-analysis of 15 studies, showing a 20% decrease in crime in areas with improved street lighting.
Key finding: Street lighting increases visibility, enabling informal social controls, and enhancing community cohesion.
Benefits: Reduced daytime and nighttime crime.
Challenges: Great variance between studies due to different populations and contexts.

Unit of Analysis & Explanation

Unit of analysis should match the unit of explanation. For example:
Ecological fallacy: Drawing conclusions about individuals based on group level data.
Example: Using high crime rates in a neighborhood to predict that individual residents are more likely to commit crime.

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Description

Explore the fundamental characteristics of theories such as parsimony, scope, logical consistency, testability, empirical validity, and policy implications. Additionally, gain insights into causality, including predictor and outcome variables, as well as temporal ordering. This quiz aims to enhance your understanding of theoretical frameworks in the social sciences.