The Uniqueness of Carbon

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Questions and Answers

Why does carbon exhibit unique properties compared to other elements?

  • It forms ionic bonds exclusively.
  • It has a variable number of valence electrons.
  • It is exceptionally small. (correct)
  • It is exceptionally large.

How does atomic size generally change moving down a group in the periodic table?

  • Size remains constant.
  • Size is unpredictable and varies randomly.
  • Size increases due to additional electron layers. (correct)
  • Size decreases due to increasing nuclear charge.

What principle explains the unusually small size of Period 2 elements?

  • The uniqueness principle (correct)
  • The aufbau principle
  • The Pauli exclusion principle
  • The octet rule

Which factor contributes to Period 2 elements being uniquely small?

<p>Electrons held closely to the nucleus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Carbon's ability to form four bonds is primarily attributed to:

<p>Having four valence electrons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What allows carbon atoms to form strong, stable bonds with each other?

<p>Their small size, allowing close approach and effective electron sharing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key requirement for atoms in a correct Lewis dot diagram?

<p>Each atom must have access to an octet of electrons (except for hydrogen). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the octet rule, and which element is an exception to it?

<p>Atoms require eight valence electrons; hydrogen is an exception. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is a double bond represented in structural formulas?

<p>By two lines between atoms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following molecules contains a triple bond?

<p>Acetylene (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In organic molecules, how many bonds does carbon always form?

<p>Four (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the distinguishing feature of a hydrocarbon molecule?

<p>It contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe atoms other than carbon and hydrogen that are found in organic molecules.

<p>Heteroatoms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In uncharged organic molecules, how many bonds do oxygen and nitrogen typically form, respectively?

<p>2 and 3 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'line structure' used for in organic chemistry?

<p>To simplify the representation of organic molecules by omitting hydrogen atoms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In line structures, what does the end of each line represent?

<p>A carbon atom (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a ‘benzene ring’?

<p>A ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are ‘functional groups’ in organic chemistry?

<p>Specific groupings of heteroatoms that appear in organic molecules and impart specific functionality (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which functional group is most associated with strong, often unpleasant odors?

<p>Sulfides (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'water footprint'?

<p>The total amount of water used by a person, entity, or product. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of water usage in the United States is attributed to the irrigation of crops?

<p>70% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Approximately what percentage of the Earth's water is fresh water?

<p>3% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are intermolecular forces?

<p>Forces between separate molecules (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes intermolecular forces from covalent bonds?

<p>Covalent bonds are typically much stronger than intermolecular forces. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the strongest type of intermolecular force discussed in relation to water?

<p>Hydrogen bonds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes hydrogen bonding in water?

<p>The attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative oxygen atom of another molecule (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is a water molecule considered polar?

<p>Because oxygen attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen, creating a dipole. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a dipole-dipole interaction?

<p>An attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What changes occur when water transitions from liquid to ice?

<p>Intermolecular forces become more organized and regular. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Nitrogen is a gas at room temperature, water is a liquid. Which of these options describes what conditions would cause those substances to change phase?

<p>Nitrogen must be cooled to become a liquid, while water must be heated to become a gas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately explains why a substance freezes at a certain temperature?

<p>The freezing point is the temperature at which a substance transitions from liquid to solid. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ice crystals forming in a brewing storm contributes to hurricane's intensity, because...

<p>The heat released during freezing warms the atmosphere. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the boiling point of water at higher altitudes compared to sea level?

<p>It decreases because atmospheric pressure is lower. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does water boil at a lower temperature at high altitudes?

<p>Atmospheric pressure is lower, requiring less energy for bubbles to form. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'working in the field' in the context of chemistry?

<p>Performing research or practical work outside of a traditional laboratory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a study conducted 'in the field'?

<p>Analyzing air samples collected near volcanoes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of the water molecule?

<p>Bent, leading to a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a proton according to the text?

<p>A hydrogen atom that has lost its electron (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) according to the text?

<p>To set limits on air pollutants, monitor emissions, and protect water quality. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Besides power plants emitting sulfur, what causes emissions that lead to acid rain?

<p>Vehicle engines. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What environmental issue is associated with excess nitrogen compounds in water bodies?

<p>Eutrophication (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason nitrogen oxides levels have not decreased as much as sulfur compounds despite catalytic converters?

<p>Nitrogen oxides are produced from various sources and are chemically more stable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Acid rain leeches essential nutrients in the soil. Which of these nutrients is named in the text?

<p>Calcium (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Why is carbon special?

Carbon's small size gives it unique properties.

Uniqueness principle

Elements in Period 2 are uniquely small due to having few electrons close to the nucleus.

Carbon's bonding

Carbon can form four bonds with other atoms.

Multiple bond

A bond in which two atoms share more than two electrons

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Double bond

A bond known as pair of bonds, each containing two electrons, for a total of four shared electrons

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Triple bond

A bond known as three bonds, each containing two electrons, for a total of six shared electrons

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Hydrocarbon

Organic molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

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Heteroatoms

Atoms other than carbon and hydrogen in organic molecules (N, O, S, halogens).

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Functional groups

Specific groupings of heteroatoms that appear in organic molecules.

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Sulfides

Organic molecules containing a sulfur atom in a hydrocarbon framework.

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Water footprint

The total water use by a person, business, country, or the planet.

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Non-potable water

Not safe for human consumption.

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Intermolecular forces

Forces that occur between molecules

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Hydrogen bond

Very lopsided bonds between O and H in water where the proton (H+) on one molecule is attracted to nonbonding electron pair on an oxygen atom of another water molecule.

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Dipole

Unevenness of electrical charge caused by excess negative charge on the oxygen atom

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Dipole-dipole interaction

When molecules of water mix with one another, the dipoles in each molecule affect how the molecules move and react.

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Freezing point

The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid.

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Melting point

The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid.

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Boiling point depends on altitude

The atmospheric pressure dictates at what value water boils.

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Working 'in the field'

Working outside of a lab.

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Atmospheric composition

Affects pH level.

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Human Activities

Source of water body acidification.

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Natural Processes

Release pollutants that lead to acidification.

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Environmental Conditions

Affects pH Levels.

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Natural Rain

pH of about 5.6 due to dissolved carbon dioxide forming weak carbonic acid.

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Acid Rain

A chemical that will provide a H+ when mixing in water.

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Acid rain formation

When pollutants are released into the atmosphere.

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Sulfur Removal from Coal Plant Emissions

Reduce emissions from coal plants, several methods are employed

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Flue Gas Desulfurization

Technology that removes sulfur dioxide from exhaust gases.

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Switching to Low-Sulfur Coal

Coal with lower sulfur content minimizes emissions.

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Bituminous Coal

Higher in carbon and energy content, commonly used for electricity generation.

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Sub-Bituminous Coal

Lower in carbon and energy content, often used in power plants with lower emissions.

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"Clean" Coal Technology

Technologies aimed at reducing emissions from coal combustion.

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Excess nitrogen compounds

Leads to significant environmental issues.

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Fixation

Process where nitrogen gas is converted into usable forms.

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Assimilation

Plants and certain bacteria absorb these fixed forms of nitrogen, incorporating them into organic compounds.

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Eutrophication

Occurs when excess nutrients, particularly nitrogen, enter water bodies.

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Hypoxia and Dead Zones

As oxygen levels drop (hypoxic conditions), areas can become "dead zones" where most marine life cannot survive.

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Nutrient Depletion

Acid rain leaches essential nutrients like calcium from both the soil and tree leaves.

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Soil Chemistry Alteration

Acid rain can release toxic aluminum from soil minerals, which can harm tree roots and further inhibit growth.

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Study Notes

Why Carbon is Special

  • Unique qualities arise from its small size
  • It serves as the backbone for organic molecules and living matter
  • The placement of carbon within the periodic table, specifically being a Period 2 element, results in it being smaller than expected when compared to elements like silicon, germanium, tin, and lead within Group 14
  • Period 2 elements have fewer electrons held closely to the nucleus.
  • Elements further down a group have more electron layers farther from the nucleus, reducing the positive pull, leading to larger atoms
  • Period 2 elements are uniquely small because they have fewer electrons close to the nucleus

Carbon Bonding

  • Each carbon atom forms four bonds with other atoms
  • Carbon atoms form strong covalent bonds by approaching each other very closely.
  • Chains may branch or form rings
  • Carbon atoms use four electrons and four vacancies to form bonds, which is shown in Lewis dot diagrams

Methane

  • Methane (CH4), or natural gas, where a central carbon atom connects to four hydrogen atoms via covalent bonds
  • According to Lewis dot diagrams, each atom needs access to an octet of electrons
  • Hydrogen follows the duet rule instead.
  • Each single line stands for a bond that has 2 electrons

Graphite, Graphene, Buckyballs, and Multiple Bonds

  • Carbon atoms form multiple bonds, when two atoms share more than two electrons
  • Period 2 elements' small size according to the uniqueness principle allows close proximity and multiple bonding between carbon atoms
  • A double bond contains a total of four shared electrons
  • Ethylene shows a double bond: each carbon atom in ethylene accesses eight electrons, following the octet rule, and each hydrogen atom follows the duet rule
  • A triple bond contains six shared electrons and acetylene that is used in welding, is what is used to show triple bonds

Elements and Organic Molecules

  • Carbon always forms four bonds due to its four valence electrons
  • Hydrogen makes one bond, needing one valence electron to form a duet
  • Nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and halogens can be found in organic molecules
  • Hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms
  • Heteroatoms alter complexity and functionality in organic molecules
  • Common heteroatoms include nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and halogens, which tend to bond consistently in organic molecules

Line Structures

  • Chemists draws molecules a lot, in molecule-drawing computer programs, or on paper
  • A chemist can add 14 hydrogen atoms around the carbon backbone of hexane, C6H14 if wanting to draw the molecule
  • Each carbon atom must make a total of four bonds.
  • Line structures, are a shorthand notation to depict molecules
  • A line structure lets us focus on the carbon backbone
  • Benzene rings are rings of six carbon atoms that alternate bonds around the ring

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