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Questions and Answers
What type of reaction allows for the formation of larger organic compounds from smaller monomers?
What type of reaction allows for the formation of larger organic compounds from smaller monomers?
Which functional groups are possible in carbohydrates?
Which functional groups are possible in carbohydrates?
What defines a monosaccharide?
What defines a monosaccharide?
What is the term for the bond that connects two monosaccharides in a disaccharide?
What is the term for the bond that connects two monosaccharides in a disaccharide?
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Which of these sugars is classified as a pentose?
Which of these sugars is classified as a pentose?
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Which of the following statements about aldose sugars is true?
Which of the following statements about aldose sugars is true?
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Which of the following describes the ring structure formation in monosaccharides?
Which of the following describes the ring structure formation in monosaccharides?
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What do fats consist of?
What do fats consist of?
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Which type of fats contains no double bonds in their fatty acid chains?
Which type of fats contains no double bonds in their fatty acid chains?
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What component distinguishes phospholipids from other lipids?
What component distinguishes phospholipids from other lipids?
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What is a primary function of waxes in plants?
What is a primary function of waxes in plants?
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What is the major consequence of having an abundance of cholesterol in the body?
What is the major consequence of having an abundance of cholesterol in the body?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of sterols?
Which of the following is NOT a function of sterols?
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What is the basic building block of proteins?
What is the basic building block of proteins?
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What type of bond connects amino acids in a protein chain?
What type of bond connects amino acids in a protein chain?
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What is the primary goal of the scientific method?
What is the primary goal of the scientific method?
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Which step in the scientific method involves formulating a testable statement?
Which step in the scientific method involves formulating a testable statement?
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Why are controlled variables important in an experiment?
Why are controlled variables important in an experiment?
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Which of the following best describes an independent variable?
Which of the following best describes an independent variable?
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What distinguishes the 20 different amino acids from one another?
What distinguishes the 20 different amino acids from one another?
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What is an example of a dependent variable in a plant growth experiment?
What is an example of a dependent variable in a plant growth experiment?
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Which category of protein is primarily responsible for muscle contraction?
Which category of protein is primarily responsible for muscle contraction?
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What does an If-Then statement represent in the scientific method?
What does an If-Then statement represent in the scientific method?
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What is the primary level of protein structure characterized by?
What is the primary level of protein structure characterized by?
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What is a limitation of science as outlined in the content?
What is a limitation of science as outlined in the content?
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Which of the following is an example of a transport protein?
Which of the following is an example of a transport protein?
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Which step of the scientific method may be replaced by prior research?
Which step of the scientific method may be replaced by prior research?
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What occurs during denaturation of a protein?
What occurs during denaturation of a protein?
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Which type of protein plays a role in the immune system?
Which type of protein plays a role in the immune system?
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What is the tertiary level of protein structure characterized by?
What is the tertiary level of protein structure characterized by?
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What type of protein regulates blood sugar levels?
What type of protein regulates blood sugar levels?
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What is a characteristic feature of polar covalent bonds?
What is a characteristic feature of polar covalent bonds?
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Which of the following correctly describes hydrogens involved in hydrogen bonding?
Which of the following correctly describes hydrogens involved in hydrogen bonding?
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What property of water is most responsible for maintaining stable temperatures in aquatic environments?
What property of water is most responsible for maintaining stable temperatures in aquatic environments?
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How does cohesion function in water molecules?
How does cohesion function in water molecules?
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What term describes water's ability to attract and hold onto molecules that are not water?
What term describes water's ability to attract and hold onto molecules that are not water?
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Why is water often referred to as a universal solvent?
Why is water often referred to as a universal solvent?
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What effect does hydrogen bonding have on water's surface tension?
What effect does hydrogen bonding have on water's surface tension?
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What role does the polarity of water play in biological systems?
What role does the polarity of water play in biological systems?
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Study Notes
The Scientific Method
- Used to answer questions and test hypotheses
- Six steps: Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Prediction, Experimentation, Conclusion
Step 1: Observation
- Gain background information and see what is already known
- Can be replaced with research
Step 2: Question
- Focuses the study and aims to answer a question
Step 3: Hypothesis
- An educated guess about the posed question based on prior observations or research
Step 4: Prediction
- Testable if-then statement based on the hypothesis
Step 5: Experimentation
- Develops a method to test the prediction
- Includes a control group and experimental group.
- Control group: Normal conditions
- Experimental group: Altered conditions
Step 6: Conclusion
- Analyzes the results of the experiment to determine if the hypothesis is supported or refuted.
Experimental Variables
- Independent variables: Directly controlled by the researcher
- Dependent variables: May or may not be influenced by an independent variable
Controlled Variables
- Variables not being studied
- Must be consistent between control and experimental groups
- Measurable
Types of Chemical Bonds
- Polar covalent bonds: Atoms unequally share electrons
- Some atoms have a greater affinity for electrons. Example: Water
- Results in a polar molecule with a positive end and a negative end
Hydrogen bonds
- Involves a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom through a polar covalent bond
- Positively charged hydrogen is attracted to another negatively charged oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom on a second molecule
Water
- Most important inorganic compound for life
- Makes up 50-90% of all organisms' bodies
- Most abundant compound in humans (60%)
Properties of Water
- Temperature stability: Requires a lot of energy to change temperature
- Polarity: Due to polar covalent bonds, water has a positive charge on one end (hydrogens) and a negative charge on the other end (oxygen).
- Cohesion: Ability of water molecules to be attracted to other water molecules due to hydrogen bond formation. Allows for surface tension.
- Adhesion: Ability of water molecules to be attracted to molecules other than water.
- Allows for condensation build-up and the meniscus in a graduated cylinder.
- Solvent properties: Water is a universal solvent that allows for the building of organic polymers from smaller monomers.
Chemical Reactions
- Hydrolysis: Breakdown of large organic polymers into smaller organic monomers
- Requires water
- Produces energy
Organic Compounds (Macromolecules)
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
- Always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and often end in "-ose"
- Monomers: saccharides
- Functional groups: Hydroxyl, and carbonyl (ketone or aldehyde)
Carbohydrate Classification
-
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars
- Triose sugars (C3H6O3), pentose sugars (C5H10O5) and hexose sugars (C6H12O6)
- Always have a fixed ratio of 1C:2H:1O
- Contain either a ketone or an aldehyde functional group
- Ketose sugars: contain ketone functional groups
- Ribulose (pentose sugar involved in photosynthesis)
- Fructose (hexose sugar found in fruit)
- Aldose sugars: contain aldehyde functional groups
- Ribose (pentose sugar found in RNA)
- Glucose (hexose sugar used to produce energy by all organisms)
- Galactose (hexose sugar found in dairy products)
- Ribose (pentose sugar found in RNA)
-
Disaccharides: Two saccharide molecules covalently bonded together
- Glycosidic linkage: Specific type of covalent bond
- Ex: Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
-
Polysaccharides: Many saccharide molecules covalently bonded together
- Complex sugars
- Can be used for energy storage or structural components of cells
- Ex: Starch (energy storage in plants)
Lipids
- Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Contains more carbon and hydrogen than oxygen
- Do not dissolve in water
- Monomer: glycerol and fatty acid chain.
- Types of lipids:
- Fats: Solids at room temperature. Used by animals for energy storage and insulation.
- Oils: Liquids at room temperature. Produced by plants.
Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Oils
- Saturated: No double bonds in fatty acid chains and have the maximum number of hydrogens present
- Unsaturated: At least one double bond exists in a fatty acid chain. Less than the maximum number of hydrogens present.
Phospholipids
- Contains one glycerol, a phosphate group, and two fatty acid chains
- Hydrophilic (water-loving) end and hydrophobic (water-fearing) end
- Comprise cell membranes
Waxes
- Numerous glycerol molecules with a single attached fatty acid chain
- Cover the roots, stems, and leaves of plants to prevent water loss
- Coat the fur and feathers of certain animals, acting as a waterproofing agent
Sterols
- Lipid-like molecules that aren't composed of glycerol and fatty acid chains
- Hydrophobic and insoluble in water.
Types of Sterols
- Cholesterol: Found in cell membranes.
- Made by cells and taken in through diet.
- An abundance of cholesterol leads to atherosclerosis, hardening of the arteries that can lead to heart disease, heart attacks, or strokes.
- Sex hormones: Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. Must be kept in balance.
- Anabolic steroids: Man-made forms of testosterone that can increase muscle mass, but stop natural testosterone and sperm production.
Proteins
- Contain C, H, O, N and sometimes S.
- Monomers: amino acids
- A chain of 100+ amino acids covalently bonded together by peptide bonds
- Functional Groups: amino and carboxyl, hydroxyl and sulfhydryl groups
Amino Acid Structure
- 20 known amino acids.
- Each contains a central carbon, a single hydrogen, an amino group, and a carboxyl group.
- All vary based on the R-group.
Functional Categories of Protein
- Storage proteins: Used to store nourishment
- Albumin: Found in egg white, used to nourish embryos
- Structural proteins: Compromise body components.
- Keratin: Found in skin, hair, and nails.
- Collagen: Found in the dermis of skin and in bones.
- Contractile proteins: Allows for contraction of muscle tissue
- Actin and myosin: In all muscle tissues
- Protective (defense) proteins: Part of the immune system
- Antibodies: Produced by white blood cells to fight infection
- Transport proteins: Used to transport something throughout the body and organism
- Hemoglobin: Transports oxygen through the bloodstream
- Hormonal proteins: Regulate blood sugar levels
- Insulin and glucagon
- Enzymatic (regulatory) proteins
- Enzymes: Control cellular, chemical, and metabolic reaction. Act as catalysts.
Levels of Protein Structure
- Primary level: Linear chain of amino acids.
- Secondary level: Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet (due to hydrogen bonding).
- Tertiary level: Multiple interactions between amino acids of the chain.
- Quaternary level: Multiple chains of amino acids interacting.
Denaturation and Renaturation
- Denaturation: Change in the shape of a protein due to excessively high temperature or unfavorable pH exposure.
- Renaturation: Return of a protein to its normal shape.
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Description
Explore the essential steps of the scientific method, from observation to conclusion. This quiz will guide you through each stage, helping to solidify your understanding of how to formulate questions and test hypotheses in scientific research.
