The Scientific Method

Module 1

• Observation involves gathering data through the senses: sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch.
• Scientific investigation is a systematic way of answering questions about the universe using the scientific method.

Scientific Method

• Make observations.
• Ask questions and collect information related to the observations.
• Form a hypothesis, which is a tentative description and prediction based on observations.
• Test the hypothesis and predictions through reproducible experiments.
• Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
• Accept, reject, or modify the hypothesis as needed.
• Replicate the experiment until consistency between observations and theory is achieved.

Inferences

• Conclusions are based on assumptions.
• Inferences are scientific opinions that use logic and reasoning to explain observations.

Observers

• Archimedes (287 BCE) developed a method to test the purity of a golden crown.
• Archimedes' observation in a bath led to his famous realization, "Eureka!", contributing to the study of forces, density, and composition.
• Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) observed a "star" moving across the sky, accompanied by four bright spots that changed positions nightly but remained in the same line.
• Galileo's observation supported the heliocentric model, suggesting Earth is not the center of motion in the solar system.
• Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered that staphylococci cultures left in petri dishes were contaminated by mold.
• Fleming observed no bacterial growth around the mold, leading him to isolate and test it against other bacteria.
• Fleming's work led to investigating the mold Penicillium notatum and the subsequent development of penicillin as the first antibiotic 10 years later.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) Knowledge

• ATSI people have inhabited Australia for over 50,000 years.
• Firestick farming increased bush tucker species in certain areas and increased plant diversity.
• Fire management reduces large wildfires, increases soil nutrients, triggers germination, and benefits small mammals.
• Firestick farming is an efficient food-finding method and an ecosystem management technique still used today.
• ATSI people developed plant-based treatments for illnesses, but finding these treatments is challenging due to seasonal plant availability.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Information

• Qualitative Information: Focuses on descriptions of "qualities" that are non-numerical, like color, softness, or scent.
• Quantitative Information: Focuses on numerical measurements related to "quantities."

Data Types

• Primary data is collected firsthand through direct observation or experimentation.
• Secondary data is collected secondhand from sources like textbooks, journal articles, or web pages.
• Seeing is noticing a feature about the universe.
• Observing involves measuring and recording information.

Analog Technologies

• Analogue comes from analogy.
• Analogue technologies represent what they measure.
• Analogue technologies are continuous without discrete sampling points.
• Examples include dials, scales, and spectra.

Digital technologies

• Digital technologies process information as digits or numbers.
• Digital technologies convert information into "bits" of 1s and 0s.
• Digital technologies produce discrete data and remove parallax errors common in analogue technologies.

Errors in Technology

• Analogue Technology Errors: Typically produce "parallax errors" from improper line-of-sight measurements; accuracy depends on the device's resolution, and data can be corrupted by "noise" (random fluctuations).
• Digital Technology Errors: Can oversimplify data by only collecting programmed information; requires careful calibration.

Understanding of the Universe

• Past understanding was limited to observations with refractive telescopes.
• Telescope resolution advancements revealed more stars, planets, and moons, showing a busier Solar System.
• Improved resolution revealed other galaxies moving away from the Milky Way.
• Observing wavelengths outside the visible light spectrum reveals more detail about the universe.
• Technological limitations still restrict some potential discoveries.

Timeline of key discoveries

• 1054: Crab Supernova appears
• 1609: Galileo builds the first telescope
• 1665: Newton discovers gravity
• 1905: Einstein publishes Relativity
• 1929: Hubble discovers the expansion of the universe
• 1960: Quasars discovered
• 1964: Microwave radiation discovered
• 1967: Pulsars discovered
• 1969: Apollo 11 lands on the moon
• 1987: Supernova 1987A reaches Earth
• 1990: Hubble Telescope launched; Big Bang confirmed
• 1993: Hubble Telescope repaired

Reproducibility

• The collection and presentation of primary data affects the outcome of a scientific investigation and the reliability of results.

Data Collection

• Observations are useful for making hypotheses.
• Anecdotal data comes from personal accounts.
• Primary data enables scientists to draw conclusions and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Empirical data is acquired through rigorous testing, experimentation, and observation in controlled conditions.

Variables in Experiments

• Independent Variable: The variable that is changed and not affected by other variables.
• Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured and affected during the experiment, responding to the independent variable.
• Controlled Variable: The variable kept constant throughout the experiment to prevent skewing the results.

Diagrams

• Diagrams are visual representations for showing features or comparisons between specimens and apparatus.
• Diagrams should follow specific rules.
• The diagram should be what you see, not what you think it should be.
• Use a lead pencil, preferably a 2H, for drawings, titles, and labels.
• Diagrams should be simple with clean cut lines, neatly drawn on unlined paper.
• Drawings should be large enough to show all parts without crowding (about half a page).
• Keep the drawing to the left, saving the right side for labels.
• Labels should be in a neat column to the right of the drawing.
• Use a ruler for label lines.
• Do not shade drawings; use dots (stipple) to indicate darker areas.
• Indicate plant cell wall thickness with two lines.
• Represent cell boundaries in tissue drawings.
• Titles should be underlined and printed immediately above the drawing.
• State magnification (e.g., Blood Cell (300X)) after the title in parentheses.
• Include your name and the date at the top right-hand corner.

Digital data Representations

• Utilize simulations, models, and 3D diagrams.
• Used to explain complex ideas.

Tables - representing data

• Tables effectively represent quantitative data and can be used for qualitative data.
• Tables summarize large data volumes, making them easier to interpret.
• Independent variables make up the rows, and dependent variables are in columns.

Graphs - Column

• Show changes in numerical data across categories.
• Have discrete variables with distinct separations.
• Allow the user to compare values across a range of categories.

Graphs - Scatter Plots

• Show the relationship between two numerical variables.
• Allow the variables to not be continuous.
• Trendlines show patterns.

Graphs - Pie Charts

• Show the various proportions making up a whole
• Often, they are reflected as percentage data

Conclusions

• Conclusions are inferences drawn from data collected by scientific investigations and are opinions based on data.
• Made using logic and reasoning.
• Accuracy of conclusion depends on data validity and reliability.
• Conclusions can be disputed, driving ongoing investigation and ensuring science is never "finished."
• Key elements: state answer to the question, compare results to the hypothesis, provide evidence, and record other potential questions.

Module 2

• Inferences are conclusions based on evidence and reasoning.
• Observation involves data through the senses.

Sources - Secondary

• Secondary sources provides understanding before primary sources.
• Secondary source information has been previously researched.

Usefulness of Secondary Sources

• Before: asking questions, constructing hypotheses, and developing methods.
• After: assessing reliability, making inferences, supporting ideas, and increasing data.

Importance of Referencing and Plagiarism

• Provides supporting information.
• Crediting other people's work.
• Adding more information for the reader.
• Crediting researcher’s efforts.

Plagiarism

• Is stealing someone else’s ideas and passing them off as one’s own.
• Using another's work without referencing.
• Involves literary theft and presenting derived material as new and original.
• Can be intentional or unintentional.
• Plagiarism can lead to work dismissal or removal from an institution.
• Two styles of referencing are Harvard and APA.

Writing References

• In-text references:
  • One author: (Surname, Year).
  • Two authors: (Surname & Surname, Year).
  • Three or more authors: (Surname et al., Year).
• Bibliography:
  • Books: Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s).
  • Journal Articles: Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Journal, Volume(Issue), Page(s).
  • Websites: Website name/Author. (Year published). Page title. [online] Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo. Year].
  • Government Publications: Government Agency OR Last name, First Initial., (Year published). Title of Document or Article. City published: Publisher, Page(s).

Comparison – Primary and Secondary Data

• Review the data, compare the data in the secondary resources.
• Are the data sets closely related, were the same units used? Can you homogenize the data?
• What are the differences and how can you explain them?
• Does the data agree with or dispute the results?

###Homogenize

• To change data to be compared with others.

Secondary Sources

• Assess inferences, questions, and hypotheses, and reduce data collection prior to the investigation.