The Scientific Method

• Science represents a structured and methodical way to explore the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• The central aim is to uncover and elucidate facts, principles, and relationships governing the cosmos.
• Empirical evidence and logical thought are fundamental to science for formulating and testing explanations and predictions.

Core Principles of Science

• Objectivity involves reducing bias and personal opinions when collecting and interpreting data.
• Empiricism underscores observation and experimentation as the basis for knowledge acquisition.
• Skepticism means questioning assertions and requiring proof before accepting them.
• Parsimony involves favoring simpler explanations (Occam's Razor).
• Testability ensures scientific claims can be tested through experiments or observations.
• Falsifiability acknowledges the possibility of disproving a scientific claim.

Scientific Method

• Observation involves identifying a phenomenon or problem.
• Hypothesis includes creating a testable explanation or prediction.
• Experimentation requires designing and executing controlled tests for data collection.
• Analysis includes interpreting collected data to support or refute hypotheses.
• Conclusion involves drawing inferences and posing new questions based on the evidence.
• Communication means disseminating findings within the scientific community through publications and presentations.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences focus on studying the physical world.
  • Physics studies the fundamental laws and properties of matter, energy, space, and time.
  • Chemistry explores the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of substances.
  • Biology is the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.
  • Earth Science includes Earth's structure, composition, processes, and history.
• Social Sciences delve into human behavior and societies.
  • Psychology examines the mind, behavior, and mental processes.
  • Sociology studies social structures, institutions, and interactions.
  • Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
  • Anthropology explores human societies, cultures, and their development.
  • Political Science focuses on the theory and practice of politics and government.
• Formal Sciences explore abstract concepts using formal systems.
  • Mathematics deals with the study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
  • Logic investigates the principles of valid reasoning and inference.
  • Computer Science includes the theory, design, and application of computers and computational systems.
• Applied Sciences use scientific knowledge for practical problems.
  • Engineering designs and constructs structures, machines, and systems.
  • Medicine diagnoses, treats, and prevents diseases and injuries.
  • Agriculture cultivates crops and raises livestock for food and other products.
  • Environmental Science studies the environment and seeks solutions to environmental problems.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• Scientific Theory means a well-supported explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on confirmed facts.
• Scientific Law is a statement or equation that reliably predicts events under specific conditions.
• Theories explain 'why', while laws describe 'what'.

Measurement in Science

• Quantitative Data is numerical information obtained through measurement.
• Qualitative Data is descriptive information that is not easily measured numerically.
• Units of Measurement are standard quantities used to express measurements.
  • SI Units are the International System of Units used globally.
  • Common SI Units are meter (m) for length, Kilogram (kg) for mass, Second (s) for time, Ampere (A) for electric current, Kelvin (K) for temperature, Mole (mol) for amount of substance, and Candela (cd) for luminous intensity.

Tools and Technologies in Science

• Microscopes magnify and observe small objects or structures.
• Telescopes observe distant objects in space.
• Spectrometers analyze light properties, such as wavelength and intensity.
• Particle Accelerators accelerate subatomic particles to high speeds to study interactions.
• Computers are used for data analysis, simulation, modeling, and automation.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific Papers are formal publications detailing research findings, methods, and conclusions.
• Peer Review is the evaluation of scientific papers by field experts.
• Conferences are gatherings where scientists present research and ideas.
• Journals are periodicals containing scientific articles on various topics.

Impact of Science on Society

• Technological Advancements: Science drives innovation and leads to new technologies that improve everyday life.
• Advances in medical science result in new treatments, cures, and preventive measures.
• Science increases our knowledge of the universe.
• Science contributes to better living conditions.

Limitations of Science

• Science is limited to studying the natural world and cannot address supernatural phenomena.
• Scientific knowledge is subject to revision as new evidence emerges.
• Bias and human error can influence scientific research.

Pseudoscience

• Pseudoscience includes claims or practices presented as scientific but lack adherence to the scientific method.
• Pseudoscience often lacks confirmation, relies on anecdotes, and resists attempts at disproving claims.
• Examples include astrology, homeopathy, and certain alternative medicine practices.

Science Ethics

• Integrity means honesty and transparency in conducting and reporting research.
• Objectivity means minimizing bias and conflicts of interest.
• Respect for Intellectual Property means proper credit to others' work.
• Confidentiality means protecting the privacy of research participants.
• Responsible Use of Science includes considering impacts of technology.