The Scientific Method

• Science employs a systematic and organized methodology for understanding the natural world and its phenomena
• Observation, experimentation, and the formulation of theories are integral to scientific inquiry
• Evidence and logical reasoning form the bedrock of science as explanations are developed and tested

Scientific Method

• Observation is the first step, involving careful observation of the natural world or a specific phenomenon
• Questions are formulated based on observations, targeting the phenomenon of interest
• A hypothesis provides a testable explanation or makes a prediction about the connection between variables
• Experimentation entails designing and conducting experiments to scrutinize the hypothesis
• Data collected from experiments undergoes analysis to assess whether it supports or refutes the hypothesis
• Conclusions are drawn based on data analysis to determine the validity of the hypothesis
• Communication involves sharing the findings of the scientific investigation with the scientific community through publications, presentations, and other avenues

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences: Focuses on studying the physical world
• Biology: Investigates living organisms
  • Studies their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution
  • Encompasses sub-disciplines such as zoology, botany, microbiology, and genetics
• Chemistry: Explores matter and its properties, along with its transformations
  • Chemistry is centered around the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter
  • Organic chemistry focuses on carbon-containing compounds, while inorganic chemistry encompasses everything else
• Physics: Examines the fundamental laws and principles governing the universe
  • Includes mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, optics, and quantum mechanics
• Earth Science: Studies Earth and its systems
  • It encompasses geology, oceanography, meteorology, and environmental science
• Social Sciences: Examines human behavior and societies
  • Anthropology: Focuses on the study of humanity
  • Economics: Studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
  • Psychology: Investigates the human mind and behavior
  • Sociology: Explores human society
• Formal Sciences: Generates knowledge through formal systems
  • Logic: Systematically examines valid inference
  • Mathematics: Employs numbers, equations, and formulas to tackle problems
  • Statistics: Involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data

Scientific Theories

• A scientific theory serves as a well-supported explanation for an aspect of the natural world
• It is grounded in a body of facts repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation
• Scientific theories are not mere guesses but comprehensive explanations substantiated by extensive evidence
• Theories facilitate predictions about future events or phenomena
• Scientific theories are subject to revision as new evidence emerges

Scientific Laws

• A scientific law is a statement describing an invariable relationship among phenomena under specified conditions
• Concise description of a natural phenomenon, rigorously tested and confirmed over time
• Scientific laws are often articulated as mathematical equations

Measurement in Science

• Measurement involves assigning numerical values to physical quantities or characteristics
• Measurement plays a crucial role in scientific investigation
• Scientific measurements demand accuracy, precision, and reproducibility
• The International System of Units (SI) serves as the standard system of units in science
• SI base units: meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity

Error Analysis

• Error analysis examines uncertainties in scientific measurements
• Every measurement carries some degree of uncertainty
• Errors can be classified as systematic or random
• Systematic errors are consistent and repeatable, often arising from faulty equipment or experimental design
• Random errors entail unpredictable variations in measurements influenced by human error or environmental conditions
• Error analysis is crucial for assessing the reliability and validity of scientific results

Data Representation

• Data collected in scientific investigations are commonly shown in tables, graphs, and charts
• Tables organize data in rows and columns
• Graphs depict the relationship between variables
• Charts display data visually

Statistics in Science

• Statistics encompasses the science of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data
• It serves as a vital tool for scientific investigation
• Statistical methods facilitate hypothesis testing, parameter estimation, and prediction-making
• Common statistical tests include the t-test, ANOVA, and chi-square test

Scientific Ethics

• Scientific ethics entails principles and guidelines governing the conduct of scientific research
• Scientists are responsible for upholding integrity, honesty, and objectivity in their research
• They must avoid plagiarism, fabrication, and data falsification
• Scientists must ensure the welfare of human and animal subjects in their research

Impact of Science

• Science has significantly impacted society
• It has spurred advancements in medicine, agriculture, transportation, communication, and numerous other fields
• Science has raised ethical and social issues requiring attention
• Science is a perpetually evolving field, emphasizing the importance of staying informed about new discoveries and developments