251 Questions
Who conducted a small excavation in Harappa in the 1850s?
Alexander Cunningham
What did Charles Masson believe about Harappa?
It was the place where Alexander defeated king Porus in battle
What did Alexander Cunningham miss when he obtained a seal with a bull and some strange writing?
The absence of hump on the bull
What was the attitude of the officers of the Archaeological Survey of India towards Harappa and Mohenjodaro in the early 20th century?
Unenthusiastic
What is one of the differences between Harappan sites mentioned in the text?
Types of artefacts found and the nature of certain structures
What does the re-interpretation of certain structures imply about the Harappan civilization?
It has important implications for the understanding of the social and political systems
What was one significant finding of recent excavations at Harappa?
Careful analysis of the cultural sequence and details of residential areas
What is one implication of the debates about various aspects of the Harappan civilization?
Not all theories are equally acceptable and each needs to be carefully examined
What is an example of the differences between Harappan sites mentioned in the text?
Types, range, and frequency of artefacts found
What do the differences in subsistence strategies, food habits, and craft traditions suggest?
Variety of religious beliefs and social customs
What did Gideon Sjoberg emphasize in relation to the history of cities and empires?
The crucial role of political control in maintaining empires and enabling trade and commerce
According to Childe, what was a key characteristic of the world's first cities?
They were larger and more densely populated than villages
What did McC.Adams emphasize in his contribution to understanding city life?
The pivotal role of political factors in the emergence of cities
What was an important aspect of McC.Adams' contribution to understanding city life?
Highlighting the relationship between cities and their hinterlands
What was Childe's emphasis regarding the rise of the world's first cities?
Technological advancements
What did Robert McC.Adams assert about the emergence of cities?
Social factors played a significant role
What did Childe's criteria for identifying cities include?
Architectural features and uniform system of weights and measures
What did Gideon Sjoberg assert played a pivotal role in the emergence of cities?
Political factors
What was one of the roles played by cities highlighted by McC.Adams?
The safe storage of agricultural surpluses
What is one way in which cities differed from villages, according to Childe?
Cities were larger and more densely populated than villages
What was one function served by monumental public buildings in cities according to Childe?
Concentration of wealth
What was emphasized by Gideon Sjoberg in relation to empires?
The role of political control in maintaining social organization and stability within empires
What allowed a greater level of protection and security in a city compared to a village?
Higher population density
Why did elite groups tend to be concentrated in the city and live near its centre?
To be near political decision-making and military planning
Which factor has been suggested as playing an important role in the emergence of cities, according to the text?
Long-distance trade
What aspect does archaeology primarily provide direct information on regarding the emergence of the world’s first cities?
Technological factors
What is one of the aspects contributing to the story of urbanization?
Expanding food resource base
What has increased enormously since the momentous discoveries at Mohenjodaro and Harappa?
Data and information about the Harappan civilization
What was crucial for dating the Harappan civilization in the initial years after its discovery?
Mesopotamian links
What bias have scholars become very conscious of and acknowledge the need to view the Harappan civilization independently?
'Mesopotamian lens' bias
'Lurewala' and 'Ganweriwala' are mentioned in the text as sites that are as large or even larger than which two cities?
'Mohenjodaro' and 'Harappa'
What is one feature that scholars have increasingly directed attention to, according to the text?
Smaller, less imposing sites including towns and villages
What has Balu in Haryana yielded that indicates it was a rich rural settlement?
Plant remains
What type of settlements have profiles available for them, according to the text?
Cities, towns, and villages
Who made the formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization in 1924?
John Marshall
What did V. Gordon Childe describe as the city?
The result and symbol of a revolution marking a new economic stage
Why did some scholars object to V. Gordon Childe's use of the word 'revolution' to describe urbanization?
It implies sudden, deliberate change, which they disagreed with
What was an important implication of John Marshall's announcement about the Indus or Harappan civilization?
It pushed back the beginnings of civilization in India by 2,500 years
What was Pandit Hiranananda Sastri's initial opinion about excavating Harappa?
He thought it was unnecessary
How did R.D. Banerji contribute to the excavation efforts at Mohenjodaro?
He started excavating Mohenjodaro in 1921
According to Pandit Hiranananda Sastri and D.R. Bhandarkar, what were their initial thoughts about the age and significance of Mohenjodaro?
They believed it could not be more than 250 years old
'Urbanization' and 'civilization' are more or less synonymous because:
They both refer to cultural stages generally associated with cities and writing
'Civilization' has grander connotations compared to 'urbanization' primarily because:
'Civilization' is linked to the emergence of cities and writing, while 'urbanization' has no specific connotations
'Monumental architecture', specialized crafts, and long-distance trade are occasionally found in non-urban contexts as well, which raises an objection regarding:
'V. Gordon Childe's criteria for city life'
What was one of the earliest exceptions regarding urban settlements without writing?
Çatal Hüyük in Turkey during the 7th millennium BCE
Charles Masson believed that Harappa was the place where Alexander defeated King Porus in battle.
True
Alexander Burnes visited Harappa and fully understood its precise significance.
False
Alexander Cunningham conducted a small excavation in Harappa in 1850s and was impressed by the remains of the structures.
False
The officers of the Archaeological Survey of India who explored Harappa and Mohenjodaro in the early 20th century were enthusiastic about the sites.
False
Pandit Hiranananda Sastri initially thought there was no point in excavating Harappa.
True
D.R. Bhandarkar’s assessment was that Mohenjodaro could not be more than 250 years old.
False
Daya Ram Sahni started excavations at Mohenjodaro in 1920.
False
R.D.Banerji started excavating Mohenjodaro in 1921.
True
The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization was made by Robert McC.Adams.
False
The word ‘urbanization’ means the disappearance of cities.
False
Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica and the Mycenaean civilization of Greece did not have true cities.
True
According to V.Gordon Childe (1950), the ‘urban revolution’ was sudden and violent.
False
Childe's 10 criteria for distinguishing the first cities were all directly deducible from the archaeological data.
False
'Urbanization' and 'civilization' are more or less synonymous because they both refer to a specific cultural stage associated with cities and writing.
True
According to some scholars, neolithic settlements have been described as urban based on size and architecture even without writing.
True
One trend in defining a city is to narrow down the diagnostic features such as focusing on elite groups and long-distance trade.
False
The Harappan sites share common features but no regional or inter-site differences.
False
The black-on-red Harappan pottery formed the majority of the total pottery finds at Allahdino.
False
The mud-brick platforms in the southern part of the citadel complex at Kalibangan, interpreted as ‘fire altars’, occur at most other sites.
False
Post-cremation burials were much more numerous at Mohenjodaro than at Harappa.
False
The ‘great granaries’ at Mohenjodaro and Harappa were confirmed to be granaries after recent excavations.
False
Recent excavations at Harappan sites have not reflected any changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of archaeology.
False
The world’s first cities were smaller and less densely populated than villages.
False
Specialized craftspersons, merchants, and officials were part of the city population but not full-time farmers and herdsmen.
False
Farmers did not have to hand over their surplus produce as tax or tribute to a ruling elite.
False
Monumental public buildings were not a characteristic feature of cities.
False
There was no trade-off between the ruling class and the rest of society in cities.
False
The invention of writing did not lead to the development of exact but practically useful sciences such as arithmetic and astronomy.
False
Conceptualized and sophisticated styles of artistic expression did not make their appearance in cities.
False
Cities did not imply a significant amount of long-distance trade.
False
Cities did not imply a state organization based on residence in a territory rather than on kinship.
False
The state did not provide security and materials to specialist craftspersons in cities.
False
Gideon Sjoberg emphasized that political control was not crucial in maintaining the social organization of empires.
False
'Lurewala' and 'Ganweriwala' are mentioned in the text as sites that are smaller than Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
False
The concentration of population in a relatively small space in a city allowed a greater level of protection and security than possible in a village.
True
Elite groups tended to be dispersed in the city and usually lived near its center.
False
Archaeology provides direct information on social and political factors rather than technological aspects when reconstructing the emergence of the world’s first cities.
False
The story of urbanization is one of decreasing cultural complexity and expanding craft production.
False
Recent discoveries have not contributed to the understanding of the Harappan civilization.
False
Scholars have not become very conscious of earlier bias and acknowledge the need to view the Harappan civilization independently.
False
Mohenjodaro and Harappa were the only urban settlements emphasized in the initial years after their discovery.
False
A small fortified rural settlement in Balu, Haryana, yielded a poor variety of plant remains.
False
The emergence of cities has to be viewed as part of a shorter history of human settlements, both rural and urban.
False
Over the years, only technological factors have been suggested as having played an important role in the emergence of cities.
False
The amount of data and information about the Harappan civilization has been steadily decreasing over time.
False
Lurewala and Ganweriwala are smaller sites compared to Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
False
What was the significance of the seal obtained by Alexander Cunningham at Harappa?
The seal had some strange writing and a bull without a hump, indicating a local origin.
Who was dismayed to find the mounds of Harappa badly disturbed by railway contractors?
Alexander Cunningham
What did Charles Masson believe about Harappa?
He believed it was the very place where Alexander had defeated King Porus in battle in the 4th century BCE.
What was one of the key characteristics of the world's first cities according to V. Gordon Childe?
Long-distance trade
What are some of the differences in Harappan sites mentioned in the text?
Layout of settlements, crops grown, types and frequency of artifacts, funerary practices
What has been re-considered in recent years regarding certain structures at Harappan sites?
Nature and function of certain structures
What changes have been observed in recent excavations at Harappan sites?
Careful analysis of cultural sequence, greater use of scientific techniques
What are the implications of the re-interpretation of structures at Harappan sites?
Implications for the understanding of the social and political systems
What does the text suggest about the debates regarding various aspects of the Harappan civilization?
Reflects the potential of archaeology as a window into the ancient past and the important role of interpretation
What does the text highlight as a key feature of recent excavations at Harappa?
Joint American and Pakistani team, careful analysis of cultural sequence, greater use of scientific techniques
Who made the formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization in 1924?
John Marshall
What did Childe describe as the city?
The result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society.
What does 'urbanization' mean?
The emergence of cities.
Who started excavations at Harappa in 1920?
Daya Ram Sahni
What was one of the earliest attempts to define a city, according to the text?
V.Gordon Childe's criteria
What did the formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization imply?
The beginnings of civilization in India were pushed back some 2,500 years, to a time roughly contemporaneous with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
What did Childe describe as the result of the 'urban revolution'?
A revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society.
Who excavated Mohenjodaro in 1921?
R.D.Banerji
What was one of the implications of Marshall's dramatic announcement?
An important and exciting fragment of India’s past had been uncovered.
What was the significance of the discoveries at Harappa and Mohenjodaro?
The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization was made in in 1924 by John Marshall.
Who reported that there was no point in excavating Harappa?
Pandit Hiranananda Sastri
Who contributed to the excavation efforts at Mohenjodaro?
R.D.Banerji
According to Childe, what were the 10 characteristics of cities?
The 10 characteristics of cities, according to Childe were...
What did Gideon Sjoberg emphasize as playing a pivotal role in the emergence of cities?
Gideon Sjoberg emphasized that political factors played a pivotal role in the emergence of cities.
What was one important aspect of McC.Adams' contribution to understanding city life?
McC.Adams highlighted the relationship between cities and their hinterlands.
What was the trade-off between the ruling class and the rest of society in cities according to the text?
Rulers lived off the surplus produced by farmers and in return provided them with peace, security, planning, and organization.
What did the ruling elite live off in cities?
The ruling elite lived off the surplus produced by farmers.
What were the groups that comprised the city population?
The city population comprised full-time craftspersons, merchants, transporters, officials, and priests.
What were the monumental public buildings in cities according to Childe?
Monumental public buildings reflected the concentration of social surplus in the hands of the elite.
What was the significance of the invention of systems of recording according to the text?
The invention of systems of recording helped meet the needs of administration.
What was one of the differences between cities and villages according to Childe?
Cities were larger and more densely populated than villages.
What was one of the features scholars have increasingly directed attention to?
Scholars have increasingly directed attention to settlement size, architectural features, and a uniform system of weights and measures.
What was emphasized by Gideon Sjoberg in relation to the history of cities and empires?
Gideon Sjoberg emphasized the close connection between the history of cities and the rise and fall of empires.
What did some scholars suggest about neolithic settlements according to the text?
According to the text, some scholars suggested that neolithic settlements have been described as urban based on size and architecture even without writing.
What allowed a greater level of protection and security in a city compared to a village?
Concentration of population
Where did elite groups tend to be concentrated in the city?
Near its centre
Apart from being centres of intellectual and commercial activity, what else did cities become centres of?
Cultural and artistic activity
What have been suggested as important factors in the emergence of cities?
Population growth, long-distance trade, irrigation, and class conflict
What is the primary source for reconstructing the emergence of the world’s first cities?
Archaeology
What has increased enormously over the eight decades or so since the discoveries at Mohenjodaro and Harappa?
Information about the Harappan civilization
What have scholars become very conscious of in recent decades regarding the Harappan civilization?
Earlier bias
What have scholars increasingly directed attention to, according to the text?
Smaller, less imposing sites, including towns and villages
What is one of the roles highlighted by McC.Adams that cities played?
Place where political decisions were taken and military strategies planned
What did Childe's criteria for identifying cities include?
Monumental public buildings, social stratification, political organization
What does the text suggest as one implication of the debates about various aspects of the Harappan civilization?
Many aspects remain mysterious and subjects of vigorous debate
What are profiles available for?
Different kinds of Harappan settlements
In 1826, Charles Masson, an adventurer who had deserted the East India Company army, stood on the mounds of ______, a village in Sahiwal district of Punjab.
Harappa
When Cunningham re-visited Harappa in 1872, he came as Director General of the newly established Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He was dismayed to find the mounds badly disturbed by ______ contractors who had been busy extracting free bricks.
railway
He conducted a small excavation and discovered the remains of some structures, but was not impressed. When Cunningham re-visited Harappa in 1872, he came as Director General of the newly established Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He was dismayed to find the mounds badly disturbed by ______ contractors who had been busy extracting free bricks.
railway
The officers of the Archaeological Survey of India who explored Harappa and Mohenjodaro in the early 20th century were ______ about the sites.
unenthusiastic
There are also differences in the types, range, and frequency of ______.
artefacts
The mud-brick platforms in the southern part of the citadel complex at Kalibangan, which have been interpreted as ‘fire altars’, do not occur at most other ______.
sites
The re-interpretation of structures has important implications for the understanding of the Harappan social and political ______.
systems
The debates about various aspects of the Harappan civilization reflect both the potential of archaeology as a window into the ancient past and the important role of ______ in this discipline.
interpretation
There has also been greater use of scientific techniques, including the analysis of bone and teeth remains, which provide very specific information about the diet and health of the ______.
Harappans
Conclusions can be reached on certain issues, while in other cases, it is necessary to acknowledge the current limits of our ______.
knowledge
One of the earliest attempts to define a city was made by V.Gordon Childe in the year ______.
1950
The emergence of cities and writing tend to go together, and 'urbanization' and 'civilization' are more or less ______.
synonymous
Childe described the city as the result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society, known as the ______ revolution.
urban
Some features, such as monumental architecture, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade, are occasionally found in non-urban contexts as well, which raises an objection regarding the criteria for defining ______.
cities
Childe identified 10 abstract criteria, all supposedly deducible from archaeological data, which distinguished the first cities from the older and contemporary ______.
villages
Pandit Hiranananda Sastri reported that he did not think there was any point in excavating ______.
Harappa
The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization was made in ______ by John Marshall.
1924
In 1920, Daya Ram Sahni started excavations at ______.
Harappa
R.D.Banerji started excavating ______ in 1921.
Mohenjodaro
Childe's observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of ______ societies.
urban
Archaeologists have described neolithic settlements as urban on the basis of size and architecture, even in the absence of ______.
writing
Childe's 10 criteria seem to be a loose assemblage of overlapping features, and are not arranged in any sequence of relative ______.
importance
Childe emphasized the importance of technological and subsistence factors such as increasing food surpluses, copper-bronze technology, and the use of wheeled transport, sailboats, and ______
ploughs
McC.Adams also highlighted the multiple roles played by cities: They were nodes for the appropriation and redistribution of agricultural surpluses. They provided a permanent base for new social and political institutions that regulated the relationships between specialized producers occupying different ______
econiches
Gideon Sjoberg emphasized the close connection between the history of cities and the rise and fall of ______
empires
Political control was crucial in maintaining the social organization of empires and providing the stability necessary for the development of trade and ______
commerce
The invention of writing led to the development of exact but practically useful sciences such as arithmetic, geometry, and ______
astronomy
Cities implied a significant amount of long-distance ______
trade
They also implied a state organization based on residence in a territory rather than on ______
kinship
Monumental public buildings were hallmarks of cities and reflected the concentration of social surplus (i.e., surplus produce and wealth generated in a society) in the hands of the ______
elite
Rulers lived off the surplus produced by farmers and in return provided them with peace, security, planning, and ______
organization
Recent excavations at Harappan sites have not reflected any changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of ______
archaeology
Scholars have increasingly directed attention to settlement size, architectural features (e.g., fortifications and the use of stone and brick), and a uniform system of weights and ______
measures
The various hypotheses that have been put forward to explain the rise of the world’s first cities are reflective of how different scholars view and understand the unfolding of historical ______
processes
The concentration of population in a relatively small space in a city allowed a greater level of protection and security than possible in a ______.
village
Elite groups tended to be concentrated in the city and usually lived near its ______.
centre
Apart from being centres of intellectual and commercial activity, since elite groups were usually also patrons of the arts, cities also became centres of cultural and artistic ______.
activity
The story of urbanization is one of increasing cultural complexity, a widening food resource base, greater technological sophistication, expanding craft production, social ______, and the emergence of a level of political organization that can be described as a ______.
stratification
New sites have been discovered, old sites re-excavated, and there are several new interpretations based on the old and new ______.
discoveries
Since archaeology forms the primary source for reconstructing the emergence of the world’s first cities, there is more direct information on the technological aspect rather than other ______, which can be understood only in very general terms.
factors
The emergence of cities has to be viewed as part of a longer history of human settlements, both ______ and urban.
rural
Another feature of the early decades of Harappan studies was an emphasis on urban settlements, especially Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Apart from being the first sites of the culture to be excavated, these two cities seemed to stand out by virtue of their size and ______ features.
architectural
Scholars have increasingly directed attention to the smaller, less imposing sites, including ______ and villages.
towns
Recent Discoveries and Changing Perspectives Over the eight decades or so since the momentous discoveries at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, information about the Harappan civilization has increased ______.
enormously
In recent decades, scholars have become very conscious of the earlier bias and acknowledge the need to view the Harappan civilization independently rather than through a ______ lens.
Mesopotamian
Profiles of different kinds of Harappan settlements are now available, and the understanding of the networks that connected cities, towns, and ______ is slowly growing.
villages
There are also differences in the types, range, and frequency of ______.
artefacts
The mud-brick platforms in the southern part of the citadel complex at Kalibangan, which have been interpreted as ‘fire altars’, do not occur at most other ______.
sites
Recent excavations at Harappan sites reflect the changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of ______.
archaeology
The debates about various aspects of the Harappan civilization reflect both the potential of archaeology as a window into the ancient past and the important role of interpretation in this ______.
discipline
The re-interpretation of structures has important implications for the understanding of the Harappan social and political ______.
systems
The story of urbanization is one of increasing cultural complexity, a widening food resource base, greater technological sophistication, expanding craft production, social ______, and the emergence of a level of political organization that can be described as a ______.
differentiation, state
The various hypotheses that have been put forward to explain the rise of the world’s first cities are reflective of how different scholars view and understand the unfolding of historical ______.
processes
Childe emphasized the importance of technological and subsistence factors such as increasing food surpluses, copper-bronze technology, and the use of wheeled transport, sailboats, and ______.
ploughs
Cities implied a significant amount of long-distance ______.
trade
Scholars such as Robert McC. Adams emphasized social factors, while Gideon Sjoberg asserted that political factors played the pivotal role in the emergence of ______.
cities
Rulers lived off the surplus produced by farmers and in return provided them with peace, security, planning, and ______.
organization
Childe's 10 criteria seem to be a loose assemblage of overlapping features, and are not arranged in any sequence of relative ______.
importance
The state provided security and materials to specialist craftspersons, enabling them to live a settled rather than an itinerant ______.
life
Monumental public buildings were hallmarks of cities and reflected the concentration of social surplus (i.e., surplus produce and wealth generated in a society) in the hands of the ______.
elite
Recent Discoveries and Changing Perspectives Over the eight decades or so since the momentous discoveries at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, information about the Harappan civilization has increased ______.
enormously
Cities and village are not two opposite poles, but interdependent and interacting parts of a larger cultural and ecological ______.
system
The invention of writing led to the development of exact but practically useful sciences such as arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, and the creation of a ______.
calendar
The story of urbanization is one of decreasing cultural complexity and expanding craft ______.
production
The concentration of population in a relatively small space in a city allowed a greater level of protection and security than possible in a ______.
village
Elite groups tended to be concentrated in the city and usually lived near its ______.
centre
Since archaeology forms the primary source for reconstructing the emergence of the world’s first cities, there is more direct information on the technological aspect rather than other ______, which can be understood only in very general terms.
factors
Recent discoveries at Harappan sites have reflected changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of ______.
archaeology
Scholars have increasingly directed attention to the smaller, less imposing sites, including ______ and villages.
towns
Childe's 10 criteria seem to be a loose assemblage of overlapping features, and are not arranged in any sequence of relative ______.
importance
What was one of the key characteristics of the world's first cities according to V. Gordon Childe? - Monumental public buildings were hallmarks of cities and reflected the concentration of social surplus (i.e., surplus produce and wealth generated in a society) in the hands of the ______.
elite
The amount of data and information about the Harappan civilization has been steadily ______ over time.
growing
Gideon Sjoberg emphasized the close connection between the history of cities and the rise and fall of ______.
empires
The emergence of cities has to be viewed as part of a longer history of human settlements, both rural and ______.
urban
The state did not provide security and materials to specialist craftspersons in ______.
cities
Monumental public buildings were hallmarks of cities and reflected the concentration of social surplus (i.e., surplus produce and wealth generated in a society) in the hands of the ______.
elite
Charles Masson, an adventurer who had deserted the East India Company army, stood on the mounds of ______, a village in Sahiwal district of Punjab. He was convinced that this must have been the very place where, in the 4th century BCE, the Macedonian invader Alexander had defeated king Porus in battle. A few years later, a traveller named Alexander Burnes visited ______. He thought it was an important site, but was clueless about its precise significance. Many decades later, in the 1850s, ______ was visited by Alexander Cunningham, a military engineer with the East India Company who was keenly interested in archaeology. He conducted a small excavation and discovered the remains of some structures, but was not impressed. When Cunningham re-visited ______ in 1872, he came as Director General of the newly established Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He was dismayed to find the mounds badly disturbed by railway contractors who had been busy extracting free bricks. Cunningham found stone tools and ancient pottery, and also obtained a seal with a bull and some strange writing. He was intrigued, but concluded that since the bull did not have a hump, the seal must be a foreign one. He missed a very important clue. The officers of the Archaeological Survey of India who explored ______ and Mohenjodaro in the early 20th century were unenthusiastic about the sites.
Harappa
Cunningham found stone tools and ancient pottery, and also obtained a seal with a bull and some strange writing. He was intrigued, but concluded that since the bull did not have a hump, the seal must be a foreign one. He missed a very important clue. The officers of the Archaeological Survey of India who explored Harappa and Mohenjodaro in the early 20th century were unenthusiastic about the ______.
sites
In 1826, Charles Masson, an adventurer who had deserted the East India Company army, stood on the mounds of Harappa, a village in Sahiwal district of Punjab. He was convinced that this must have been the very place where, in the 4th century BCE, the Macedonian invader Alexander had defeated king Porus in battle. A few years later, a traveller named Alexander Burnes visited ______. He thought it was an important site, but was clueless about its precise significance.
Harappa
When Cunningham re-visited Harappa in 1872, he came as Director General of the newly established Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He was dismayed to find the mounds badly disturbed by railway contractors who had been busy extracting free bricks. Cunningham found stone tools and ancient pottery, and also obtained a seal with a bull and some strange writing. He was intrigued, but concluded that since the bull did not have a hump, the seal must be a ______ one.
foreign
The sites were eventually excavated. In 1920, Daya Ram Sahni started excavations at Harappa and in 1921, R.D.Banerji started excavating ______
Mohenjodaro
The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization was made in in 1924 by John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey, almost a century after Charles Masson had wandered over the mounds of Harappa and sensed that there was something significant about the place. The implications of Marshall’s dramatic announcement were enormous. An important and exciting fragment of India’s past had been uncovered, and the beginnings of civilization in India were pushed back some 2,500 years, to a time roughly contemporaneous with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. JOHN MARSHALL, DIRECTOR GENERAL, ASI, 1902–28 Civilization and Urbanization: Definitions and Implications The word ‘urbanization’ means the emergence of cities. ‘Civilization’ has more abstract and grander connotations, but refers to a specific cultural stage generally associated with cities and writing. In a few instances, archaeologists have described neolithic settlements as urban on the basis of size and architecture, even in the absence of writing. This is the case with 8th millennium BCE Jericho in the Jordan valley and the 7th millennium BCE settlement at Çatal Hüyük in Turkey. It has also been pointed out that the Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica and the Mycenaean civilization of Greece did not have true cities, while the Inca civilization of Peru did not have a system of true writing. However, apart from a few such exceptions, cities and writing tend to go together, and ‘urbanization’ and ‘civilization’ are more or less synonymous. One of the earliest attempts to define a city was made by V.Gordon Childe (1950). Childe described the city as the result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society. Like the earlier ‘neolithic revolution’, the ‘urban revolution’ was neither sudden nor violent; it was the culmination of centuries of gradual social and economic changes. Childe identified 10 abstract criteria, all supposedly deducible from archaeological data, which distinguished the first cities from the older and contemporary villages. RAKHALDAS BANERJI, WHO EXCAVATED ______ IN 1921 Childe’s observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies.
Mohenjodaro
One of the earliest attempts to define a city was made by V.Gordon Childe in the year ______
1950
Childe described the city as the result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society. Like the earlier ‘neolithic revolution’, the ‘urban revolution’ was neither sudden nor violent; it was the culmination of centuries of gradual social and economic changes. Childe identified 10 abstract criteria, all supposedly deducible from archaeological data, which distinguished the first cities from the older and contemporary villages. RAKHALDAS BANERJI, WHO EXCAVATED MOHENJODARO IN 1921 Childe’s observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies. Some scholars did not agree with his use of the word ‘revolution’ to describe urbanization, as it suggests sudden, deliberate change. Further, his 10 criteria seem to be a loose assemblage of overlapping features, and are not arranged in any sequence of relative importance. For instance, were sophisticated artistic styles as important as an agricultural surplus or a state structure? Further, all 10 features (e.g., exact and predictive sciences) are not directly deducible from the archaeological data. Another objection is that some features, such as monumental architecture, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade are occasionally found in non-urban contexts as well. However, if we consider the 10 characteristics collectively instead of individually, it has to be conceded that Childe did succeed in identifying the most significant features and implications of city life. Over the years, there have been three different sorts of trends in defining the city. One is to narrow down the diagnostic features, focusing, for instance, on writing, monumental structures, and a large population. RAKHALDAS BANERJI, WHO EXCAVATED MOHENJODARO IN ______ Childe’s observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies.
1921
The word ‘urbanization’ means the emergence of ______
cities
‘Civilization’ has more abstract and grander connotations, but refers to a specific cultural stage generally associated with ______ and writing.
cities
An important and exciting fragment of India’s past had been uncovered, and the beginnings of civilization in India were pushed back some 2,500 years, to a time roughly contemporaneous with the civilizations of ______ and Egypt.
Mesopotamia
Childe described the city as the result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society. Like the earlier ‘neolithic revolution’, the ‘urban revolution’ was neither sudden nor violent; it was the culmination of centuries of gradual social and economic changes. Childe identified 10 abstract criteria, all supposedly deducible from archaeological data, which distinguished the first cities from the older and contemporary villages. RAKHALDAS BANERJI, WHO ______ MOHENJODARO IN 1921 Childe’s observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies.
excavated
Childe described the city as the result and symbol of a revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society. Like the earlier ‘neolithic revolution’, the ‘urban revolution’ was neither sudden nor violent; it was the culmination of centuries of gradual social and economic changes. Childe identified 10 abstract criteria, all supposedly deducible from archaeological data, which distinguished the first cities from the older and contemporary villages. Some scholars did not agree with his use of the word ‘revolution’ to describe ______, as it suggests sudden, deliberate change.
urbanization
The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or ______ civilization was made in in 1924 by John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey, almost a century after Charles Masson had wandered over the mounds of Harappa and sensed that there was something significant about the place.
Harappan
Over the years, there have been three different sorts of trends in defining the city. One is to narrow down the diagnostic features, focusing, for instance, on writing, monumental structures, and a large ______.
population
______’s observations proved to be the starting point of an important debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies. Some scholars did not agree with his use of the word ‘revolution’ to describe urbanization, as it suggests sudden, deliberate change. Further, his 10 criteria seem to be a loose assemblage of overlapping features, and are not arranged in any sequence of relative importance. For instance, were sophisticated artistic styles as important as an agricultural surplus or a state structure? Further, all 10 features (e.g., exact and predictive sciences) are not directly deducible from the archaeological data. Another objection is that some features, such as monumental architecture, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade are occasionally found in non-urban contexts as well. However, if we consider the 10 characteristics collectively instead of individually, it has to be conceded that ______ did succeed in identifying the most significant features and implications of city life.
Childe
Match the following individuals with their contributions to the excavation efforts at ancient sites:
Daya Ram Sahni = Excavations at Harappa R.D.Banerji = Excavations at Mohenjodaro Charles Masson = Early recognition of significance of Harappa V. Gordon Childe = Defining criteria for identifying cities
Match the following civilizations with their characteristics:
Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica = Absence of true cities Mycenaean civilization of Greece = Absence of true cities Inca civilization of Peru = Absence of true writing Indus or Harappan civilization = Pushing back the beginnings of civilization in India
Match the following terms with their definitions:
Urbanization = Emergence of cities Civilization = Cultural stage associated with cities and writing Neolithic settlement = Described as urban based on size and architecture City = Result and symbol of a revolution marking a new economic stage
Match the following scholars with their emphasis on factors in the emergence of cities:
Gideon Sjoberg = Political factors Robert McC. Adams = Social factors V. Gordon Childe = Technological and subsistence factors V.Gordon Childe = Revolution marking a new economic stage
Match the individuals with their contributions to the excavation efforts at Harappa and Mohenjodaro:
Charles Masson = First speculated about the historical significance of Harappa and Mohenjodaro Alexander Burnes = Visited Harappa and recognized its importance as a site Alexander Cunningham = Obtained a seal with a bull and some strange writing at Harappa John Marshall = Made the formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization in 1924
Match the civilizations with their characteristics according to V. Gordon Childe:
Neolithic settlements = Described as urban based on size and architecture, even without writing Mayan civilization = Did not have true cities Mycenaean civilization = Did not have true cities Inca civilization = Did not have a system of true writing
Match the terms with their descriptions according to the text:
Civilization = Specific cultural stage generally associated with cities and writing Urbanization = The emergence of cities Neolithic revolution = Gradual social and economic changes culminating in the urban revolution Urban revolution = A revolution that marked a new economic stage in the evolution of society
Match the characteristics with their implications for the emergence of cities according to the text:
Cultural complexity and widening food resource base = Increasing craft production and social organization Greater technological sophistication = Emergence of a level of political organization that can be described as a state
Match the following with the characteristics of the world's first cities according to V. Gordon Childe:
Monumental public buildings = Hallmarks of cities Surplus food produced by farmers = Supported city population Conceptualized and sophisticated styles of artistic expression = Made their appearance in cities Trade-off between the ruling class and the rest of society = Rulers lived off the surplus produced by farmers
Match the following with the contributions to understanding city life according to McC.Adams:
Appropriation and redistribution of agricultural surpluses = Nodes for Permanent base for new social and political institutions = Regulated relationships between specialized producers Safe storage of surpluses, concentration of wealth = Expenditure on public building programmes Centres for learning, artistic creativity, philosophical debate = Development of religious ideas
Match the following with the implications of political control in Gideon Sjoberg's view:
Maintaining social organization of empires = Providing stability necessary for trade and commerce Connection between the history of cities and rise and fall of empires = Political control crucial Elaborated on city's functions and features = Many facets of city's functions
Match the following with their roles in city life according to McC.Adams:
Nodes for appropriation and redistribution of agricultural surpluses = Specialized producers occupying different econiches Permanent base for new social and political institutions = Regulated relationships between specialized producers Safe storage of surpluses, concentration of wealth = Expenditure on public building programmes by elite groups Centres for learning, artistic creativity, philosophical debate = Development of religious ideas
Match the following with their roles in the emergence of cities:
Population concentration = Allowed greater level of protection and security in a city Long-distance trade = Facilitated communication and exchange of goods and services among specialists Irrigation = Played an important role in the emergence of cities Class conflict = One of the factors suggested as having played an important role in the emergence of cities
Match the following with their contributions to understanding city life:
Archaeology = Provides direct information on the technological aspect rather than other factors Elite groups = Tended to be concentrated in the city and lived near its centre Political decisions = Taken in the city Military strategies = Planned in the city
Match the following with their characteristics related to Harappan settlements:
Mohenjodaro and Harappa = The first sites of the culture to be excavated Lurewala and Ganweriwala = As large or even larger than Mohenjodaro and Harappa Allahdino = A village settlement that reveals all main features of the Harappan civilization Balu = A small fortified rural settlement that has yielded a rich variety of plant remains
Match the following with their association with the study of cities:
Childe's observations = Starting point of an important debate on diagnostic features of urban societies V. Gordon Childe = Described city as a result and symbol of a revolution marking a new economic stage R.D.Banerji = Started excavating Mohenjodaro in 1921 Pandit Hiranananda Sastri = Initially thought there was no point in excavating Harappa
Match the following with their implications for understanding the Harappan civilization:
Variety of subsistence strategies, food habits, craft traditions, religious beliefs, cultic practices, and social customs = Differences in the types, range, and frequency of artefacts Layout of settlements and crops grown and consumed = Differences in the frequency of various funerary practices across sites Mud-brick platforms in the southern part of the citadel complex at Kalibangan = The nature and function of certain structures Recent excavations at Harappa = Changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of archaeology
Match the following with their descriptions of urbanization and civilization:
Urbanization = Emergence of cities Civilization = Specific cultural stage generally associated with cities and writing Neolithic settlements described as urban based on size and architecture even without writing = Exceptional cases where neolithic settlements are considered urban
Match the following with their characteristics attributed to V. Gordon Childe's concept of city:
Monumental public buildings as hallmarks of cities = Concentration of social surplus in the hands of ruling class 10 abstract criteria for distinguishing first cities from older villages = Revolution marking a new economic stage in society
Match the following with their implications for understanding urban societies:
Debate on diagnostic features of urban societies = Different scholars' views on historical unfolding Concentration of population in a relatively small space = Greater level of protection and security than rural areas
Match the following with their implications for understanding archaeological data:
Re-interpretation of structures = Important implications for understanding Harappan social and political systems Recent excavations at Harappan sites = Reflecting changes in approaches, goals, and techniques within the discipline of archaeology
Match the following with their findings or contributions to understanding city life:
Profiles of different kinds of Harappan settlements = Understanding networks that connected cities, towns, and villages Concentration of population in a relatively small space = Greater level of protection and security than possible in rural areas
Explore the various trends and hypotheses related to the rise of the world's first cities, including settlement size, architectural features, cultural complexity, and political control. Delve into scholarly perspectives on this pivotal historical development.
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