Ch.6-Section 1. The Byzantine Civilisation

• In 476, the Roman Empire collapsed in the West, but continued in the East for another thousand years as the Byzantine Empire.
• The Byzantine civilization combined ancient Greek and Near Eastern cultures, influencing Russia and southeastern Europe.
• The growth of Christ's kingdom continued in the East, experiencing spiritual contamination, in line with Christ's teachings in Matthew 13:24-32.
• Islam emerged in Arabia during the seventh century, spreading through military conquest and creating an empire from Spain to India.
• Islamic civilization merged its traditions with those of conquered peoples.

The Rise of "New Rome"

• In 330, Emperor Constantine dedicated Constantinople ("Constantine's City") as the new capital of the Roman Empire.
• Constantinople was strategically located on a peninsula by the Bosporus, linking Europe and Asia.
• In 1930, Constantinople's name changed to Istanbul by the Turkish government.
• It became a vital commercial, political, and religious center.
• Emperor Theodosius formally divided the empire, making Constantinople the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
• Constantinople became one of the five major patriarchates of the Christian church.
• While the Western Roman Empire declined, the Eastern Roman Empire prospered due to its strength.
• The Byzantine Empire was named after the ancient Greek city Byzantium.
• Byzantine civilization retained Roman customs, traditions, and political/legal structures.
• Hellenistic culture heavily influenced the Byzantine Empire, making it more Greek and Asiatic.

The Reign of Justinian

• Emperor Justinian (527-565) marked the first great period of Byzantine history.
• Justinian's wife, Theodora, played a crucial role in his success.
• The Nika Revolt in 532 threatened Justinian's rule, but Theodora's encouragement led him to crush the uprising, solidifying his power.
• Justinian's main goal was to restore the Roman Empire's greatness by recovering territories in the West from barbarian tribes.
• Justinian's generals led military campaigns, defeating the Vandals in North Africa, capturing Italy from the Ostrogoths, and penetrating the Visigoth kingdom in Spain, expanding the empire.
• One of the most enduring achievements was the preservation of Roman law through the Justinian Code.
• Justinian appointed a commission to compile, reorganize, and condense Roman law, clarifying legal principles.
• The Justinian Code preserved Roman legal heritage, influencing modern European political and legal systems.
• Justinian's reign was a golden age, marked by extensive construction projects, including churches like the Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom").
• Justinian sent missionaries from the Eastern Orthodox Church to lands like Nubia.
• Justinian's attempts to reclaim the West and his building programs strained the empire's finances and neglected its borders.

Eastern and Western Churches Separate

• Constantine established Constantinople as a new religious center, favoring Christianity, and it became one of the five patriarchal cities.
• The bishop of Rome led the Western church, while the patriarch of Constantinople led the East.
• The Western church relied on tradition alongside Scripture, taught baptismal regeneration, emphasized sacred works for salvation, and gave more authority to church leaders.
• Greek and Oriental ideas influenced the Eastern church, leading to the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East.
• The Eastern church became a state church closely linked to the Byzantine Empire's political framework.
• The Byzantine emperor was the head of state and protector of the church, unlike in the West where the bishop of Rome held primary leadership.
• Differences arose over issues like Easter celebrations, priestly marriage, and the use of icons.
• Leaders of the Byzantine church rejected the bishop of Rome's claim of supreme authority.
• Tensions between the eastern and western churches culminated in 1054 with excommunications between the pope's representatives and the patriarch.

The Eastern Orthodox Church

• Churches in the eastern Mediterranean that rejected Rome's control became the Eastern Orthodox.
• Orthodox means "straight opinion".
• Early leaders defended the Trinity and Christ's divinity, later adopting sacraments and baptismal regeneration.
• The Orthodox Church emphasizes conformity, ritual, and reverence of icons over personal relationship with Christ.
• It comprises various national churches (e.g., Russian, Greek, Romanian Orthodox Churches).
• Each patriarch leads their national church, and all patriarchs are equal in position.

The Empire Under Siege

• The Byzantine Empire experienced periods of expansion and contraction between the sixth and fifteenth centuries.
• It faced barbarian attacks during the fourth and fifth centuries.
• After Justinian, the empire was besieged by the Lombards, Slavs, Bulgars, and Sassanids.
• In the seventh century, Arab Muslims advanced from the Arabian Peninsula, threatening Constantinople.
• Constantinople withstood Arab attacks due to its location, fortifications, and "Greek fire".
• The Byzantines lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa to the Muslims.
• Between 850 and 1050, the Byzantine Empire regained strength, pushing back the Muslims and becoming a dominant Mediterranean power under Basil II ("Bulgar Slayer").
• This period saw a revival of commerce, culture, and expansion.
• Later obstacles included commercial rivals like Venice and the Seljuk Turks.
• The Seljuk Turks seized Asia Minor in 1071 after the Battle of Manzikert.
• The Byzantine emperor appealed to the West for aid, leading to the Crusades.
• In 1204, Crusaders looted Constantinople, Venice's commercial rival, harming the Byzantine Empire.
• In 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.

Greek Fire

• Constantinople's defense was aided by "Greek fire," a secret weapon developed in the seventh century.
• Greek fire was an explosive mixture of chemicals, possibly including quicklime, sulfur, naphtha, and potassium nitrate.
• It ignited spontaneously and burned underwater, effective against wooden ships, enabling Byzantine control of the Mediterranean.

Byzantine Civilization Contributions

• The Byzantine Empire shielded the West from Islam, allowing the West to recover after Rome's collapse.
• The Byzantine civilization preserved and transmitted the classical heritage of Greece and Rome to the West.
• Achievements attracted less civilized peoples, who tried to emulate Byzantine governance.
• Many eastern European pagan peoples embraced Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine culture.
• Cyril and Methodius, Byzantine missionaries, created a written language for Slavic peoples based on the Greek alphabet.
• Byzantine art glorified God and adorned churches with wall paintings, ivory carvings, illuminated manuscripts, and mosaics.
• Byzantine architecture excelled in domed structures, with the Hagia Sophia as the most famous example.

The Meaning of Icons

• Orthodox believers focus beyond icons to the represented heavenly reality.
• Icon artists used unchanging techniques, such as absence of shadows, external depiction of internal scenes, and unrealistic figures.
• Colors had special meanings: red for love, blue and gold for truth and heaven, white for light and holiness.
• Icon painting styles remained consistent for centuries.