Ch.6 The Byzantine and Islamic Empires Review Test

• In 476, the Roman Empire collapsed in the West but continued in the East as the Byzantine Empire for another thousand years.
• The Byzantine civilization was a mix of ancient Greek heritage and Near Eastern cultures, significantly influencing Russia and southeastern Europe.
• The kingdom of Christ grew but was also corrupted, and challenged by rival movements like Islam in the 7th century.
• Islam spread through military conquest, creating an empire from Spain to India, blending customs with conquered people's learning.

The Rise of "New Rome"

• Emperor Constantine dedicated "New Rome" in 330, better known as Constantinople, located on the Bosporus strait.
• Constantinople was a vital trade link between East and West, accumulating wealth from around the globe.
• In 1930, the Turkish government renamed Constantinople to Istanbul.
• Constantinople became a major political and religious hub, serving as the Eastern Roman Empire's capital after Theodosius divided the empire.
• It became recognized as one of the Christian church's five major patriarchates.
• While the Western Roman Empire declined, the Eastern Roman Empire prospered due to its strength.
• The city was called the "queen of the Mediterranean".
• The Byzantine Empire was named after the ancient Greek city Byzantium, upon which Constantinople was constructed.
• The people considered themselves Romans, continuing Roman customs, political and legal structures.
• Byzantine culture was more Greek and Asiatic than Roman or European.
• While the West declined, the East flourished under the Byzantine Empire.

The Reign of Justinian

• Justinian (r. 527-65) rose from humble beginnings to become a famous Byzantine emperor, aided significantly by his wife Theodora.
• In 532, the Nika Revolt threatened Justinian's power, but he crushed it, securing his reign.
• Justinian sought to restore the Roman Empire's greatness by regaining Western territories from barbarian tribes.
• His generals led campaigns throughout the Mediterranean, defeating the Vandals in North Africa and capturing Italy from the Ostrogoths.
• Justinian’s conquests expanded the Byzantine Empire to its largest size, but he couldn't reclaim all former Roman lands.
• The Justinian Code was created by scholars appointed by Justinian to compile, reorganize, and condense Roman law.
• The Justinian Code became a systematic arrangement of laws that clarified Roman legal principles which provided a foundation for modern European nations' political and legal systems.
• Justinian's reign was a golden age, marked by extensive building projects and support for Byzantine art.
• The Church of Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom") stands as the finest example of Byzantine architecture.
• Justinian sent missionaries from the Eastern Orthodox Church to lands like Nubia.
• His focus on reclaiming the West led to neglecting the defense of eastern and northern borders.
• Costly military campaigns and building projects financially strained the empire.
• Justinian brought the Byzantine Empire to its peak but also left it vulnerable.

Eastern and Western Churches Separate

• Constantine founded "New Rome" as a new political and religious center, desiring it to be a Christian city.
• "Constantine's City" rose to prominence in the organized church, becoming one of the five patriarchal cities.
• The bishop of Rome became the most important religious leader in the West; the patriarch of Constantinople held that position in the East.
• The Western church incorporated tradition, baptismal regeneration, sacred works for salvation, and increased authority for church leaders.
• Greek and Oriental ideas influenced the eastern church, creating the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East.
• The church in the East was closely linked to the empire's political framework as the state church.
• The Byzantine emperor was head of state and protector of the church, unlike in the West.
• Westerners looked to the bishop of Rome for leadership, not a king or emperor.
• The East and West differed on issues like Easter celebrations, priests marrying, and the use of icons.
• Byzantine leaders resented the bishop of Rome's interference and refused to acknowledge papal supremacy.
• Bitter rivalry culminated in 1054 when the pope's representatives excommunicated the patriarch which led to the patriarch excommunicating the pope.

The Eastern Orthodox Church

• Churches in the eastern Mediterranean that refused Rome's control became the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• The word orthodox means "straight opinion" in Greek.
• Early Orthodox leaders defended the Trinity and Christ's divinity.
• The Eastern Orthodox Church adopted sacraments and baptismal regeneration.
• The Orthodox churches emphasize conformity, ritual, and reverence of icons over a personal relationship with Christ.
• Today, it comprises various national churches, such as Russian, Greek, and Romanian Orthodox Churches.
• Each patriarch has authority over his own national church and is equal in position.

The Empire Under Siege

• The Byzantine Empire experienced periods of success and failure from the 6th to 15th centuries.
• It repeatedly enlarged and lost territory due to external forces.
• After Justinian's reign, the empire faced sieges from the Lombards, Slavs, Bulgars, and Sassanids, but managed to repel them.
• The Arab Muslims emerged as a major threat in the 7th century, seizing Byzantine lands in the East.
• Constantinople withstood Arab attacks due to its location, fortifications, and "Greek fire".
• By the 8th century, the empire's territory was greatly reduced.
• Between 850 and 1050, the Byzantine Empire regained strength, pushing back Muslims and reasserting dominance in the Mediterranean.
• Under Basil II (976-1025), known as the "Bulgar Slayer," the empire reached its height, crushing the Bulgars and expanding territory.
• Commercial and cultural interests revived, enriching Constantinople and spreading Byzantine influence.
• After two centuries of expansion, the empire faced new challenges.
• Commercial rivals like Venice challenged Byzantine trade supremacy.
• The Seljuk Turks seized Asia Minor in 1071 after the Battle of Manzikert.
• The Byzantine emperor appealed to the West for aid, leading to the Crusades.
• In 1204, Crusaders captured and looted Constantinople, a blow from which the empire never fully recovered.
• The empire steadily declined for two centuries, finally ending in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople.

Greek Fire

• Constantinople's defense was aided by "Greek fire," developed in the 7th century.
• Greek fire was an explosive mixture of chemicals, possibly including quicklime, sulfur, naphtha, and potassium nitrate.
• Soldiers used tubes or catapults to squirt or launch it, igniting spontaneously and burning even underwater.
• Greek fire was effective against wooden ships, helping Byzantines control the Mediterranean for centuries.

Byzantine Civilization Contributions

• The Byzantine Empire shielded the West against Islam for centuries, allowing it to recover post-Rome.
• Byzantine civilization preserved and transmitted the classical heritage of Greece and Rome to the West.
• Byzantine society influenced less civilized peoples with its wealth and governmental system.
• Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine culture spread to pagan peoples in eastern Europe.
• Cyril and Methodius created a Slavic written language based on the Greek alphabet.
• Byzantine art and architecture, intended to glorify God, adorned churches with paintings, ivory carvings, manuscripts, and metalwork.
• Mosaics were a favorite decorative art.
• Byzantine architects excelled in domed structures.
• The Hagia Sophia is the most famous example, inspiring architectural designs in other lands..

The Meaning of Icons

• Orthodox believers direct their minds beyond icons to the heavenly reality they represent.
• Artists used techniques to make figures appear otherworldly and unchanged for centuries.
• Icons lacked shadows to avoid implying material and earthly elements.
• Historical scenes inside buildings were shown outside with the building in the background to give them universal meaning.
• Figures were portrayed unrealistically to show they conquered their senses and lived according to their spiritual nature.
• Colors had special meanings: red symbolized love, blue and gold represented truth and heaven, and white symbolized light and holiness.
• Icon painting remained unchanged for centuries, unlike Western art.

Beginnings of Early Russia

• Russia is the world's largest country, covering about one-sixth of the globe across Europe and Asia.
• Russia's population is composed of many different racial and linguistic backgrounds.
• The Slavs played a major role in establishing the early Russian state.
• The Slavs moved into eastern Europe as Germanic tribes migrated west.
• Three groups emerged: West Slavs (Poles, Czechs), Yugo-Slavs (South Slavs), and East Slavs (ancestors of Russians).
• The East Slavs occupied the territory between the Baltic and Black Seas and used rivers for trade.
• In the 8th and 9th centuries, Swedish Norsemen (Varangians) sailed south from the Baltic Sea, plundering Slavic villages.
• Many Varangian warriors settled along inland waterways to open trade routes.
• Slavic settlements hired Varangians for protection.
• In Novgorod, the Slavs invited Varangian rule, marking the traditional beginning of Russian history in 862.
• Rurik established the first ruling dynasty of Russia.
• Rurik's successors ruled other cities, including Kiev, which became the center of the early Russian state.
• Kiev was located on the Dnieper River, a major trade route with the Byzantine Empire.
• This confederation sought to further the region's common commercial interests and protect important trade routes.
• The area under Kievan influence became known as Russia, from the Slavic term Rus, meaning "rowers" or "seafarers."

Byzantine Cultural Influences

• Russian culture was significantly influenced by Byzantium.
• Kiev and Constantinople developed close cultural ties through early commercial contacts.
• Eastern Orthodoxy was adopted by Kievan ruler Vladimir I in 988, becoming the official state religion.
• Russia was cut off from Western thought and came under the influences of the eastern church and Byzantine culture.
• The Orthodox church greatly influenced Russia.
• The Russian language profited from the Slavic alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius.
• The Russian language enabled the Russians to translate Greek works into their Slavic language and promoted the growth of native Russian literature.
• Russian artists created icons and cathedrals modeled after Byzantine examples.
• A unique feature of the cathedrals is the "onion-shaped" dome.

Vladimir and the Orthodox Church

• Vladimir decided to establish a monotheistic religion among his people.
• He investigated Islam, Judaism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy.
• Vladimir rejected Islam because the Qur'an forbade alcohol.
• Vladimir rejected Judaism because the Jewish people had been defeated and scattered.
• Vladimir rejected Roman Catholicism because the Catholic churches were dark and the services were dull.
• Vladimir chose Eastern Orthodoxy because his envoys described a beautiful service at the Hagia Sophia.
• The Russian Orthodox Church was established.

Height of Kievan Russia

• Kiev reached its peak under Yaroslav "the Wise" (1036-1054).
• Kiev became known as the "Mother of Russian cities".
• During the reign of Yaroslav it reached the greatest territorial expansion of the early Russian state.
• Yaroslav gained international recognition through marriage alliances with royal families.
• He sponsored the earliest known Russian code of laws, which combined Slavic tribal and Byzantine law.
• Yaroslav desired to make Kiev a rival of Constantinople.
• Kiev became a leading city in size, wealth, and culture, attracting Byzantine artists, architects, teachers, and priests.
• With Byzantine aid, the Russians built their own Hagia Sophia cathedral.
• Kiev boasted schools, libraries, monasteries, cathedrals, and fortifications.
• After Yaroslav's death, Kiev lost prominence due to infighting among his heirs.
• New trade routes drew away Kiev's wealth and population.
• Kiev's influence declined after the Tartars destroyed it in 1240.
• They ruled Russia until the late 1400s.
• After the decline of Mongol power, Moscow arose as a new center of Russian society.

The Land of Arabia

• Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, is a large peninsula south of the Fertile Crescent.
• It lies between Asia and Africa, bordered by the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
• The area is about one-third the size of the United States.
• Much of the land is a barren wilderness with sparse vegetation and limited agriculture due to extreme heat and lack of rainfall.
• This environment kept Arabia isolated until Islam's emergence in the 7th century.
• Arabs trace their origin to Abraham through Ishmael.
• Arabs had little unity before Islam due to the lack of an organized government.
• Each Arab was loyal to own tribe, and warfare among the tribes was frequent.
• The Bedouins were desert nomads who roamed in search of pastureland and water for their herds.
• Some Arabs lived settled lives along the coast, establishing cities as trade centers.

The Founding of Islam

• Muhammad (570-632) was born in Arabia shortly after the death of Justinian.
• Muhammad claimed to be the last and greatest prophet of Allah.
• His teachings became the basis for Islam, meaning "submission" to Allah.
• His followers are called Muslims.
• Muhammad was born to a poor family in Mecca and became an orphan at age six.
• Muhammad was reared by his grandfather and uncle.
• He married Khadijah, a wealthy merchant widow, at age twenty-five.
• In leisure time, Muhammad meditated on religion and struggled with the polytheism of his people.
• During his travels he encountered many religions, and he borrowed from them to form a new religious movement that would govern every aspect of life.
• Muslim historians say in his 40th year, Muhammad received a vision from the angel Gabriel.
• Muhammad began preaching the belief in one god, Allah, and that he was Allah's prophet.
• Muhammad was not successful in gaining converts because the people of Mecca ridiculed him because they viewed his teaching as contrary to their religious beliefs and a threat to the city's commercial interests.
• The city's trade and religious worship centered around the Kaaba.
• Fearing his monotheistic teachings, the leaders of Mecca persecuted Muhammad and his followers.

The Flight to Medina

• In 622, Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca for Medina.
• This move is celebrated as the Hegira, marking year 1 in the Muslim calendar.
• In Medina, Muhammad's following grew rapidly.
• The Arabs of Medina accepted him as their spiritual, political, and military leader.
• With an army of militant Muslim followers, he slaughtered any who opposed him.
• In 630, Muhammad reentered Mecca in triumph, destroying the idols of the Kaaba.
• Mecca became the "holy city" of Islam.

The Teachings of Islam

• The Qur'an is the Muslims' sacred book.
• Muslims the archangel Gabriel revealed the words of Allah to Muhammad.
• The Qur'an contains 114 chapters, or suras which act as the rules on Muslim belief and practice.
• The central doctrine of the Qur'an is the belief in one god, Allah.
• Muslims believe that Allah sent more than one hundred thousand prophets.
• Islam reveres Muhammad as the last and greatest prophet and the Qur'an as Allah's final revelation.
• The Qur'an's moral teachings guide believers' conduct.
• The Qur'an encourages humility, duty, kindness, and benevolence.
• The Qur'an condems idolatry, murder, gambling, drinking, and adultery.
• It teaches Muslims to fear Allah because he will punish evil in the afterlife.
• The Qur'an describes a "day of judgment".
• The Qur'an reflects ideas Muhammad drew from Jewish and Christian sources.
• The Qur'an honors Noah, Abraham, David, and Jesus as prophets of Allah.
• The Qur'an emphasizes prayer, moral conduct, resurrection, judgment, and heaven and hell.
• Islam stresses the worship of one god and regards the Bible as a holy book.
• Muhammad rejected the Trinity and denied that Christ is the Son of God.

The Five Pillars

• The Five Pillars of Islam:
• Shahadah: belief and recitation of "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet."
• Salat: reciting prayers up to five times a day while facing Mecca.
• Zakat: giving alms to the poor.
• Sawm: fasting from sunrise to sunset during Ramadan.
• Hajj: making a pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Islam considers Muhammad the ultimate spokesman for divine truth.
• The Bible calls Jesus Christ the Word of God.
• Islam rejects the Bible's teaching that Jesus is God the Son.
• Islam honors Jesus as a prophet but denies his divinity.
• Islam denies that Jesus came to save people from sin and that he even died and rejects God's solution for sin with the sacrifice of His Son on the cross.
• The Qur'an speaks of Allah as a God of justice, mercy, and forgiveness.
• Allah cannot be just unless he punishes all men for sin and has no basis to forgive if Jesus never died to pay the penalty for sin.

Islam and Murder

• The Qur'an forbids the murder of Muslims.
• Killing non-Muslims in battle was encouraged by Muhammad.
• Muslim conquerors beheaded large numbers of prisoners following conquest.
• Muslim forces murdered hundreds of thousands of Hindus by beheading even after they had submitted to Muslim rule.

Sunni vs Shia Islam

• Sunni Muslims believed any worthy Muslim could lead Islam (the caliphate).
• The caliph was a political leader, judge, administrator, and general, but not the spiritual leader.
• Shia Muslims believed Muhammad intended Ali to be his successor with authority over political and spiritual matters (imam).
• Today, Sunnis use "imam" to refer to the leader of worship in a mosque.
• Shiites claim an unbroken succession of imams from Ali to the present.
• The caliphate was dissolved in 1924 by Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal.
• Sunni Muslims hope for the renewal of the caliphate to unite Muslims.

The Spread of Islam

• By 632, Muhammad had united much of Arabia under Islam but did not appoint a successor
• Muhammad's closest friends chose the first four caliphs who exercised spiritual, political, and military authority.
• Abu Bakr (r. 632-34) and the three caliphs that followed initiated a policy of military conquest.
• This policy lead to the creation of a vast Arab empire founded upon Islam.
• The Arab warriors conquered Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia due to several factors
• The Arabs sought escape from the poverty of the Arabian peninsula.
• The Byzantine and Persian Empires had become weak.
• Islam united the warring Arab tribes around a common cause with promises of paradise upon death in battle.

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

• In 661, a Muslim general proclaimed himself caliph, moved the capital to Damascus, and established the Umayyad dynasty.
• The Umayyads ended the practice of selecting the caliph from Muhammad's close circle.
• The Umayyads continued expansion into India, Constantinople, North Africa, and Spain.
• They were stopped by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732.
• By the Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab empire stretched from Spain to India.

Abbasid Caliphate (750-ca. 1000)

• Discontent over Umayyad rule led to Abbas overthrowing the Umayyad caliph in 750 and founded the Abbasid caliphate.
• Under the Abbasids, Arab supremacy declined, and non-Arabs held high positions and became influential.

The Turks and the Crusades

• The first defeat of Muslim forces was by the Nubians.
• The Nubians repulsed the Muslim invasion in 710.
• It remained free of Muslim control until 1272.
• During the Abbasid dynasty, the political unity of the Muslim world crumbled.
• Disputes over succession broke out, and independent dynasties emerged.
• The Seljuk Turks, who accepted Islam, took control of Asia Minor, which had been under Byzantine control.
• Muslim forces destroyed churches and attacked Christian pilgrims.
• The Crusades aimed to free the Holy Land from the Muslim Seljuk Turks but did little to remove the Muslims from Palestine.
• The Crusades succeeded in weakening the power of the Seljuks.
• The Seljuk Empire ended when the Mongols swept into the Muslim world.
• In the 14th century, the Ottoman Turks restored Turkish rule and built a vast empire across North Africa, the Middle East, and southeastern Europe.
• The Ottoman navy controlled the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

Muslim Culture Contributions

• The Arabs built the Muslim empire through conquest.
• They adopted and enhanced the cultural heritage of the Persians, Byzantines, Egyptians, and Syrians.
• They developed a prosperous civilization by blending cultural influences with Islam.

First Muslim Setback

• By the middle of the 8th century, the Muslim empire was no longer predominantly Arab, and Muslim leaders moved the capital to Baghdad.
• Islam demonstrated a more Persian influence.
• As the empire continued, trade routes to China, India, and East Africa were expanded to bring back new products and ideas
• These achievements of Muslim culture, later found their way to the West as European merchants opened up trade routes to the Middle East.
• These routes also enabled Persian Christians to preach the gospel to China.
• The Abbasid caliphate marks the peak of the Muslim empire, and its new capital Baghdad became one of the world's leading commercial centers.
• Islam flourished during the Abbasid rule.

Products of the Muslim Empire

• The Crusaders came to Muslim lands and admired silk, muslin and damask, carpets, leather, filigree jewelry, silver and gold, and knives and swords.
• Ships returned to Europe loaded with these treasures in addition to dates, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, and melons, all of which were previously unknown in the West during this period.

Preserved Ancient Writings

• The Muslims translated manuscripts from other lands into Arabic, including writings of Aristotle, Plato, Galen, Hippocrates, Archimedes, Euclid, and Ptolemy.
• Muslim scholars built libraries to preserve these manuscripts and Arabic translations.

Medicine

• The Muslims profited from the Greek writings of Galen and Hippocrates which led Muslim doctors to put into practical use what they learned from the classics and developed new medical procedures.
• Medical scholars Al-Razi is remembered for his work with smallpox, and Ibn Sina for his work with tuberculosis.
• Muslim doctors developed surgical skills and built hospitals throughout the empire.
• Muslims had something similar to modern pharmacies that filled prescriptions.
• Government inspectors supervised the pharmacies to ensure the purity of the medicines.

Literature

• Muslims produced rich imagery in poetry and prose.
• Omar Khayyam was a renowned Muslim poet.
• One of the most well known pieces is The Thousand and One Nights (a.k.a The Arabian Nights) which includes the stories of "Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp" and "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves”.

Tales of Arabia

• The Thousand and One Nights is about a sultan named Shahriyar, who executed each new bride the morning after the wedding night.
• Shahriyar weds Scheherazade, a maiden.
• Scheherazade tells climactic stories for Shahriyar's entertainment but stops at the climax.
• Shahriyar delays the planned executions to hear the story's continuation till the end of one thousand and one nights.
• Shahriyar has fallen in love and abandons thought of executing Scheherazade, and they live happily ever after.

Mathematics

• The Muslims borrowed much of their basic mathematical knowledge from India.
• The Arabic numerals are of Hindu origin.
• Islamic people popularized them with the Hindu decimal system and the concept of zero.
• The Muslims studied and improved algebra, which came from India, as well as the geometry and trigonometry of the Greeks.

Art and Architecture

• Religion plays an important part in Muslim art.
• Muhammad forbade the representation of men and animals in art.
• Muslim artists developed abstract decorative designs with stems, leaves, and geometric figures.
• Muslim artists also excelled in calligraphy with manuscript illumination for books, especially the Qur'an.
• Muslim architecture drew from Persian and Byzantine styles.
• Mosques (places of Muslim worship) have courtyards, minarets, and domes.
• The courtyard has a pool for ceremonial washing before prayer.
• A minaret is a tall tower from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer.
• The dome covers the main portion of the mosque.
• Inside, the walls are white and inscribed with quotations from the Qur'an.
• Each mosque has a niche indicating the direction of Mecca.