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Questions and Answers
What was the Civil Code of 1804 established by Napoleon primarily known as?
Napoleonic Code
What did Napoleon introduce in regions under French control to simplify administrative divisions and abolish the feudal system?
The French armies were always welcomed as liberators by the local populations in the areas they conquered.
False
According to Frédéric Sorrieu's print (Fig. 1), how does he visualise a world made up of democratic and social Republics?
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What was the flag carried by the German peoples in Sorrieu's print (Fig. 1) a representation of?
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According to Ernst Renan, a nation is the culmination of a long past of ________, sacrifice, and devotion.
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In Ernst Renan's view, a nation is solely formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory. (True/False)
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
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How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge?
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What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?
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Describe the political ends that List hopes to achieve through economic measures.
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What is the caricaturist trying to depict?
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What inspired liberal-nationalists in Europe following the French Revolution?
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Who founded the secret society of Young Europe in Berne?
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Language played a crucial role in developing nationalist sentiments in Poland.
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The Grimm Brothers collected and published popular ____________.
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Match the following terms with their significance: Romanticism - ___ Folklore collection - ___
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Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers’ uprising.
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Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist regarding the Silesian weavers' uprising.
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Compare the positions on women's rights voiced by Carl Welcker, Louise Otto-Peters, and the anonymous reader.
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What do the positions on women's rights by the three writers reveal about liberal ideology?
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What model is argued to be exemplified by Great Britain?
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What identities did people in the British Isles have prior to the eighteenth century?
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Britain's formation of a nation-state was the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
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In Britain, the Act of Union in 1707 resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great ________.'
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What changes occurred in Central and Eastern Europe after 1848 in relation to serfdom and bonded labor?
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Who was the chief minister of Prussia involved in the process of German unification?
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Otto von Bismarck was a key figure in the unification of Italy.
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In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united _____.
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Match the regions with their role in the unification of Italy:
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What attribute of Veit's Germania is symbolized by the broken chains?
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In the painting 'The fallen Germania' by Julius Hübner, what do you see?
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What historical events could Julius Hübner be referring to in the painting 'The fallen Germania'?
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What did the inscription on Germania's sword in Lorenz Clasen's painting proclaim?
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How did nationalism evolve in Europe by the last quarter of the 19th century?
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The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic homogeneity.
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The spread of ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans led to __________.
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What led to a series of wars in the Balkans and eventually to the First World War?
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What did British imperialism symbolize in the 19th century as depicted in the map celebrating the British Empire?
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Study Notes
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
- The French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of prints in 1848, visualizing his dream of a world made up of democratic and social republics.
- The first print, "The Pact Between Nations", shows people of Europe and America marching together, offering homage to the statue of Liberty, and symbolizing the unity of nations.
- In this utopian vision, people are grouped as distinct nations, identified by their flags and national costumes, and led by the United States and Switzerland, which were already nation-states.
The Concept of a Nation
- According to Ernst Renan, a nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifices, and devotion, and is based on a shared history, common glories, and a common will.
- A nation is a large-scale solidarity, and its existence is a daily plebiscite, where people decide to live together and share a common identity.
- Renan emphasizes that nations are important because they guarantee liberty and provide a sense of community and belonging.
Nationalism in France
- The French Revolution in 1789 introduced the concept of nationalism, where the people, rather than the monarch, constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
- The revolutionaries introduced measures to create a sense of collective identity, such as the concept of "la patrie" (the fatherland) and "le citoyen" (the citizen), emphasizing equal rights under a constitution.
- A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen, and a centralised administrative system was established, with uniform laws, weights, and measures.
Spread of Nationalism in Europe
- The French Revolution inspired similar movements in other European cities, with students and educated middle classes setting up Jacobin clubs.
- The French armies carried the idea of nationalism abroad, spreading it to Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s.
- Napoleon's conquests and reforms introduced revolutionary principles, making administrative systems more rational and efficient, and promoting equality and liberty.
Reactions to French Rule
- The reactions of local populations to French rule were mixed, with initial enthusiasm giving way to hostility as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not bring political freedom.
- In some areas, such as Holland and Switzerland, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty, but this initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility.### The Making of Nationalism in Europe
- In the mid-18th century, Europe was not divided into nation-states as we know them today.
- Territories were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, with autonomous rulers and diverse populations.
- Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies, with diverse populations and languages.
Key Dates
- 1797: Napoleon invades Italy, and the Napoleonic wars begin.
- 1814-1815: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement.
- 1821: Greek struggle for independence begins.
- 1848: Revolutions in Europe; artisans, industrial workers, and peasants revolt against economic hardships.
- 1859-1870: Unification of Italy.
- 1866-1871: Unification of Germany.
- 1905: Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
- The landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent, united by a common way of life and French language.
- The majority of the population was made up of peasants, with small landholdings in Western Europe and vast estates in Eastern and Central Europe.
- The growth of industrial production and trade led to the emergence of commercial classes and a working-class population.
Liberal Nationalism
- Ideas of national unity were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism, which stood for freedom, equality, and government by consent.
- Liberalism emphasized the abolition of aristocratic privileges, a constitution, and representative government.
- It also stressed the inviolability of private property, but did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
- Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.
Economic Nationalism
- The emerging middle classes demanded the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on trade.
- In the German-speaking regions, the creation of a unified economic territory allowed for the unhindered movement of goods, people, and capital.
- Friedrich List, a German economist, advocated for a customs union (zollverein) to bind the Germans economically into a nation.
A New Conservatism
- Following the defeat of Napoleon, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism, which sought to preserve traditional institutions and social hierarchies.
- The Vienna Congress of 1815 aimed to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe.
- Conservative regimes imposed censorship laws to control freedom of speech and expression.
The Revolutionaries
- Liberal-nationalists, who criticized the new conservative order, fought for liberty, freedom, and the creation of nation-states.
- Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
- Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, believed in the creation of a unified Italian republic within a wider alliance of nations.### The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
- Conservative regimes tried to consolidate power, but liberalism and nationalism led to revolutions in many European regions, including Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland.
- Revolutions were led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle-class elite, including professors, schoolteachers, clerks, and commercial middle-class members.
- The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830, leading to the overthrow of the Bourbon kings and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe.
- The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
- The Greek war of independence (1821) mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe.
- Nationalists in Greece received support from other Greeks living in exile and West Europeans who sympathized with ancient Greek culture.
- The Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
- Nationalism did not only develop through wars and territorial expansion, but also through culture, art, and poetry that helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
- Romanticism, a cultural movement, sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment, criticizing the glorification of reason and science and focusing on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
- Romantics, such as Johann Gottfried Herder, claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people (das volk) through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances.
- Collecting and recording folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building, emphasizing vernacular language and carrying the modern nationalist message to large audiences.
Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt
- The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe, with an enormous increase in population and unemployment.
- Small producers struggled with stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialization was more advanced.
- Food prices rose, leading to widespread pauperism in towns and countries, especially in regions where the aristocracy still held power.
- Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations, leading to widespread unrest.
- The year 1848 saw food shortages, unemployment, and the rise of a barricade in Paris, forcing Louis Philippe to flee.
The Revolution of the Liberals
- Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed, and starving peasants and workers, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway.
- Events of February 1848 in France led to the abdication of the monarch and the proclamation of a republic based on universal male suffrage.
- In other parts of Europe, men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification, taking advantage of growing popular unrest.
- The Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, drafting a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
Women's Rights and Liberalism
- The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, despite women's active participation in politics.
- Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
- Writers like Carl Welcker and Louise Otto-Peters expressed differing views on women's rights, with Welcker believing nature designated men as protectors of the family, while Otto-Peters argued that liberty is indivisible and free men should not tolerate being surrounded by the unfree.
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Explore the rise of nationalism in Europe through the works of Frédéric Sorrieu, focusing on democratic and social republics in the 19th century.
