The rise and fall of the Roman Forum

• The Roman Forum served as the political, religious, and commercial center of ancient Rome for centuries.
• Key structures in the Forum included the Curia (Senate House), Basilica Aemilia, Temple of Saturn, and the Arch of Septimius Severus.
• The Forum hosted triumphal processions, elections, and legal proceedings.
• After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the Forum was abandoned.
• By the Middle Ages, the Cloaca Maxima clogged, building up soil over centuries.
• By the 16th century, the Forum was buried and known as Campo Vaccino, used for grazing livestock.
• Many ancient monuments were repurposed as churches or incorporated into medieval structures.
• Systematic excavations in the 19th century uncovered the Forum's original level, revealing its historical significance.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

• Built in 141 AD by Emperor Antoninus Pius and dedicated to his deceased wife Faustina the Elder.
• Rededicated to both Antoninus and Faustina by Emperor Marcus Aurelius after Antoninus' death in 161 AD.
• Features Corinthian columns of Cipollino marble.
• Repurposed into a Christian church, San Lorenzo in Miranda, preserving it from destruction.
• The original temple entrance was far below today’s ground level due to debris accumulation.
• Temples converted into churches often remained intact, preserving Roman architectural elements.

Curia Julia

• The Curia Julia was built by Julius Caesar in 44 BC to serve as the Senate House of ancient Rome.
• It replaced the earlier Curia Hostilia, which had been destroyed by fire.
• Completed by Emperor Augustus and remained a key location for political debates in the Roman Empire.
• The bronze doors were removed and relocated to the Lateran Complex, at the entrance of the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano.
• The Curia was converted into a church in the 7th century, contributing to its preservation.
• It is now one of the best-preserved structures in the Roman Forum.

Temple of Portunus

• Built in the 1st century BC, dedicated to Portunus, the god of harbors and keys.
• Roman temples were set on a high podium with a deep porch, differing from Greek temples.
• Features a pediment, entablature, and freestanding columns in the front, with engaged columns in the walls.
• Converted into a Christian church during the Middle Ages, preserving it from destruction.
• Remains one of the best-preserved temples from antiquity, showcasing Roman religious architecture.

Urban Transformation of Rome

• Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) transformed Rome into a navigable city after the Renaissance.
• He completed Julius II’s unfinished projects and created a star-shaped road system connecting major basilicas.
• Rome suffered from unpaved roads, ruins, and scattered churches, making it difficult for pilgrims to navigate.
• Sixtus V’s road plan linked major pilgrimage sites, ensuring visitors could reach important churches easily.
• The Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore became the hub of this road system.
• Sixtus V emphasized the importance of the Virgin Mary, whose status had solidified by his time.
• His urban planning permanently reshaped Rome into a more structured religious center.

Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore

• Built in the 5th century AD, one of Rome’s most significant and well-preserved churches.
• Became the center of a network of streets under Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590).
• Known for its mosaics and Cosmatesque floors, which repurpose materials from earlier Roman monuments.
• The floor plan follows a traditional basilica layout, adapted to reflect Christian symbolism.
• The church incorporates a cross-shaped design with a central nave, aisles, a clerestory, and a large apse.
• Features a nave with aisles, second-floor clerestory and a large apse behind the altar, flanked by two transepts, forming the shape of a cross
• Vast size made it ideal for large gatherings.
• Christian modifications transformed it into one of the most important churches in Rome.

Vatican Obelisk

• Originally from ancient Egypt, brought to Rome as a symbol of conquest.
• Associated with sun gods and pharaohs.
• In the late 16th century, Pope Sixtus V Christianized Rome to attract Christian pilgrims.
• He relocated the Vatican Obelisk to St. Peter’s Square, making it the centerpiece of the Vatican.
• This was intended as a way of reinforcing Rome's central role in the Catholic Church.
• Held symbolic value as a witness to Saint Peter’s martyrdom.
• Christian inscriptions were added to the base and top.
• Domenico Fontana repositioned the obelisk in 1586.
• Now stands as a Christian symbol in St. Peter’s Square, reinforcing Rome’s spiritual legacy.

Dome of St. Peter’s Basilica

• One of Rome’s most iconic structures, symbolizing the Catholic Church’s grandeur.
• Construction began under Pope Julius II (1503-1513), with early contributions from Michelangelo and Raphael.
• Michelangelo designed much of the dome but worried about structural failure.
• The project stalled after Michelangelo’s death.
• Pope Sixtus V entrusted Giacomo della Porta to complete the basilica.
• Della Porta modified Michelangelo’s design, giving the dome its pointed shape.
• Sixtus V included his papal crest, with a lion’s head, symbolizing his role in its completion.

Lateran Obelisk

• Originally from ancient Egypt, brought to Rome as a symbol of imperial conquest.
• Initially placed in the Circus Maximus.
• Emperor Constantine planned to relocate it, but his son, Constantius II, fulfilled the plan.
• Remained at the Circus Maximus for centuries.
• In the late 16th century, Pope Sixtus V had it excavated and relocated to Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano.
• He added a cross on top and inscriptions reinforcing its religious meaning.
• The relocation was part of Sixtus V’s urban plan to transform Rome into a Christian pilgrimage center.

Scala Santa (Holy Stairs)

• Believed to be the steps Jesus ascended during his trial before Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem.
• Brought to Rome by Saint Helena, Emperor Constantine’s mother, in the 4th century AD.
• Pope Sixtus V relocated them to the Chapel of Sancta Sanctorum.
• Domenico Fontana constructed a protective building around the stairs.
• This transformed the site into a major pilgrimage hub, reinforcing Rome's importance as the heart of Christianity.
• Remains a major pilgrimage site today.

Cortile del Belvedere

• Pope Julius II (1503-1513) created a private courtyard within the Vatican Palace.
• Inspired by classical antiquity, he recreated a Roman garden with plants, sculptures, and relics.
• Adorned with lemon trees and classical statues, including the Apollo Belvedere and Belvedere Torso.
• Became a center for the study of antiquity, inspiring Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Raphael.
• Helped shape the Vatican Museums.

Laocoön and His Sons

• A famous sculpture from ancient Rome, depicting the tragic fate of Laocoön, a Trojan priest of Apollo.
• Athena sent sea serpents to strangle Laocoön and his sons as punishment for warning the Trojans.
• Discovered in Rome in 1506 and acquired by Pope Julius II.
• Placed in the Vatican, inspiring Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Raphael.
• Considered a masterpiece of Hellenistic art and remains a centerpiece of the Vatican Museums.

Hall of the Muses

• Located in the Museo Pio Clementino within the Vatican Museums.
• Designed between 1771 and 1774 to resemble an ancient Roman building.
• Intended to showcase classical sculptures in a setting that evoked antiquity.
• Became part of the Museo Pio Clementino, founded under Pope Clement XIV and expanded by Pope Pius VI.
• Was the first section of the Vatican Museums open to the public.
• Houses Greek and Roman mythology-inspired sculptures.

Sala Rotonda

• Part of the Museo Pio Clementino in the Vatican Museums.
• Designed between 1771 and 1774 to recreate the architectural grandeur of ancient Rome.
• Classical sculptures were displayed in spaces similar to their original settings.
• Modeled after the Pantheon, featuring a large domed ceiling and ancient statues and mosaics.
• Reflected the 18th-century movement to present antiquities in historically appropriate settings.
• Remains one of the most visually striking rooms in the Vatican Museums.