The Revolution of Science

• The Scientific Revolution saw medieval scientists, or "Natural Philosophers," shift from relying on Aristotle to making their own observations.
• The Renaissance, new inventions like the telescope and microscope, and the printing press spurred this change.

Early Achievements

• James Cook used the chronometer to calculate ship positions accurately.
• Cook discovered that fresh produce prevents scurvy.
• Francois Viete used letters to represent unknown numbers.
• Simon Stevin introduced the decimal system.
• Works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, along with contemporary mathematicians, established algebra, trigonometry, and geometry.

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Astronomy discoveries during this time led to a new understanding of the universe.
• Advancements in medical knowledge and launched the field of chemistry

The Ptolemaic System

• Medieval philosophers created the geocentric Ptolemaic system.

Copernicus and Kepler

• Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the universe in "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" (1543).
• Johannes Kepler stated the sun was the center of the universe
• Kepler determined planetary orbits are elliptical.

Galileo's Discoveries

• Galileo Galilei, was the first European to use a telescope to study astronomy.
• In 1610, Galilei's "The Starry Messenger" supported the Copernican view.
• The church ordered Galilei to abandon his heliocentric ideas.
• By the 1630s and 1640s, most astronomers accepted the heliocentric model.

Newton's View

• Isaac Newton explained gravity and planetary motion in "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," outlining his laws of motion.

Breakthroughs in Medicine

• Before the Scientific Revolution, Galen's animal dissections were the basis for understanding human anatomy.
• Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey advanced anatomical knowledge through human dissection in the 16th century.
• Vesalius accurately described human organs and structure.
• Harvey proved the heart, not the liver, initiates blood circulation, which makes a complete circuit.

Breakthrough in Chemistry

• Robert Boyle conducted controlled chemistry experiments and formulated Boyle's Law regarding gas volume and pressure.
• Antoine Lavoisier developed a chemical naming system.

Bacon and Scientific Method

• Francis Bacon invented the Scientific Method, which is a system for evidence collecting and analyzing

Path to Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment was an 18th-century movement applying the scientific method to understand life and improve society based on reason, natural law, hope, and progress.

John Locke

• John Locke believed in "Tabula Rasa" or every person being born with a blank mind, this showed how people are molded by their experiences.

Isaac Newton

• Newton viewed the world as a machine governed by natural laws.

Ideas of the Philosophes

• Philosophes were Enlightenment intellectuals, mainly from French nobility and the middle class, who aimed to reform society.
• The philosophes often disagreed - however, the most significant philosophers were Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot.

The Role of Philosophy

• To the philosophes the role of philosophy was to change the world.

Montesquieu

• Charles-Louis de Secondat (Montesquieu) proposed republics for small states, despotism for large states, and monarchies for moderate-sized states.
• Montesquieu claimed that England's government had three branches: the executive (the monarch), the legislative (Parliament), and the judicial (the court of law).
• Montesquieu claimed that England's government functioned through a separation of powers with checks and balances.

Voltaire

• Voltaire criticized Christianity and advocated for religious tolerance.
• Voltaire promoted deism, viewing God as a clockmaker.

Diderot

• Denis Diderot created the "Encyclopedia" to attack superstition and advocate for reforms and spread enlightenment ideas.

Smith on Economics

• Adam Smith advocated for laissez-faire economics in "The Wealth of Nations" (1776).
• Smith believed that self-interest and competition benefit society.
• Smith stated that government should only protect society, defend citizens, and maintain public works.

Laissez-Faire Economics

• Laissez-Faire Economics allowed for the following: prices are lower, Productions are more efficient, Labor and capital are directed to the most profitable industries.

Mercantilism

• A Nation's Wealth is Measured By the amount of gold and silver in its treasury.
• To Increase Wealth, Government Must: Encourage exports and Restrict imports.

Beccaria on Justice

• Cesare Beccaria argued against brutal punishments and capital punishment in "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764).

The Spread of Ideas

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocated for a social contract where society agrees to be governed by the general will.
• Liberty is achieved by being forced to follow what is best for "the general will"

Women's Rights

• Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for women's rights to reason, education, and economic/political equality in "A Vindication of the Rights of Women."

Women's Rights continued

• Wollstonecraft stated the ideals of the Enlightenment centered around reason in all human beings, therefore women should have rights
• Wollstonecraft also said that the power dynamic that was wrong when monarch's held it over society was also wrong when men held it over women.

The Salon

• Salons were drawing rooms where philosophical conversations took place

Religion in the Enlightenment

• Most Europeans were still Christian
• Catholic parishes remained an important center of life

The Scientific Revolution spurred changes in astronomy, math and medicine. Scientists shifted from relying on Aristotle to making their own observations. The Renaissance and new inventions, like the telescope and printing press, spurred this change.