The Revolt of 1857: Policies and People

• The chapter focuses on the revolt of 1857 and its aftermath in India

Policies and the People

• East India Company policies impacted kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, and soldiers
• People resisted policies that harmed their interests or went against their beliefs

Nawabs Lose Power

• From the mid-18th century, nawabs and rajas saw their power decline
• They gradually lost authority and honor
• Residents were stationed in courts
• Rulers’ freedom was reduced, armed forces disbanded, and revenues/territories taken
• Ruling families negotiated with the Company to protect interests

Rani Lakshmibai and Nana Saheb

• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognize her adopted son as heir
• Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, requested his father’s pension, but the Company refused

Annexation of Awadh

• Awadh was among the last territories annexed
• A subsidiary alliance was imposed in 1801
• Awadh was taken over in 1856
• Governor-General Dalhousie declared Awadh misgoverned, needing British rule for administration

Mughal Dynasty

• The Company planned to end the Mughal dynasty
• The Mughal king's name was removed from Company coins
• In 1849, Dalhousie announced Bahadur Shah Zafar's family would move from the Red Fort after his death
• In 1856, Canning declared Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal king
• His descendants would be princes, not kings

Peasants and Sepoys

• Peasants and zamindars resented high taxes and rigid revenue collection
• Many lost lands to moneylenders due to unpaid loans
• Indian sepoys were discontented with pay, allowances, and service conditions
• New rules violated religious beliefs; crossing the sea meant losing religion/caste
• In 1824, sepoys refused sea route to Burma, agreeing to land route, thus punished
• In 1856, a law required new army recruits to serve overseas if needed
• Sepoys reacted to countryside issues affecting peasant families, spreading anger

Responses to Reforms

• The British wanted to reform Indian society
• Laws ended sati and encouraged widow remarriage
• English education was promoted
• After 1830, Christian missionaries could freely own land
• A law in 1850 allowed Christian converts to inherit ancestral property easily
• Many Indians felt the British were destroying religion, customs, and traditions

Perceptions of British Rule

• Vishnubhatt Godse, in 'Majha Pravaas', wrote about meeting sepoys who warned of a massive revolt
• The English aimed to eliminate religions through 84 rules announced in Calcutta
• Kings refused the rules, foreseeing dire consequences and upheaval
• Sitaram Pande joined the Bengal Native Army as a sepoy in 1812
• Sitaram Pande suppressed the uprising where his own son was was killed by the British
• Oudh's seizure caused distrust among sepoys, leading to plots against the Government
• Agents spread rumors of foreigners' treachery, inciting soldiers to mutiny and restore the Delhi Emperor

The New Rifle

• The British introduced a new rifle using cartridges greased with cow and pig fat without regard to religious customs
• The sepoys believed the British aimed to convert them to Christianity by the cartridges usage

Mutiny to Popular Uprising

• Struggles between rulers and the ruled can escalate into widespread resistance, breaking state power
• In 1857, Northern India saw a massive uprising against the East India Company
• Sepoys began to mutiny in Meerut
• Different sections of society joined in rebellion
• This uprising is considered the biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the 19th century

From Meerut to Delhi

• On April 8, 1857, Mangal Pandey was hanged for attacking officers in Barrackpore
• On May 9, 1857, sepoys in Meerut refused army drill with new cartridges (suspected of cow and pig fat)
• Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed and jailed
• On May 10, soldiers marched to the Meerut jail, freeing imprisoned sepoys
• They killed British officers, seized weapons/ammunition, set buildings ablaze, and declared war
• Soldiers went to Delhi, and Delhi regiments joined the rebellion
• British officers were killed, arms/ammunition seized, and buildings burned
• Soldiers gathered at the Red Fort, urging Badshah to lead
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed leader
• Mughal dynasty had ruled over areas indirectly through smaller rulers, increasing possibility of expansion of the revolt exponentially

The Uprising Spreads

• The ageing emperor accepted their request, uniting Indian states against the British
• Bahadur Shah's step had significant implications, uniting smaller rulers under Mughal authority
• The British had not anticipated the events, initially thinking the conflict of cartridges would die down

Regiment Mutinies

• Regiment after regiment mutinied spreading the revolt throughout the country
• People in towns and villages rose up, rallying around local leaders and zamindars
• Nana Saheb expelled the British from Kanpur, declaring himself Peshwa under Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Birjis Qadr was proclaimed Nawab in Lucknow, recognizing Bahadur Shah Zafar's authority
• Begum Hazrat Mahal played an active role in organizing the revolt against the British
• Rani Lakshmibai joined rebel sepoys in Jhansi, fighting with Tantia Tope
• Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh led an army of 4,000 against the British in Mandla region
• British numbers against the British were limited giving the revolters confidence to take the plunge and join the uprising

Loyalist Resistance

• Telegrams sent by British officers at the time admitted their vulnerability
• Ahmadullah Shah prophesied of the end of the British rule gathering a large following to Lucknow
• Bakht Khan took charge joining forces with religious warriors to take Delhi.
• Kunwar Singh battled with the British in Bihar

The Company Fights Back

• The Company decided to repress the revolt
• Reinforcements were brought in from England
• New laws made convicting rebels easier

Recapturing Territories

• Delhi was recaptured in September 1857
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried, imprisoned for life, and sent to Rangoon
• Lucknow was taken in March 1858
• Rani Lakshmibai killed in June 1858
• Tantia Tope fought a guerrilla war, captured and killed in April 1859
• Victories against the British encouraged uprising
• The defeat of rebel forces encouraged desertions
• The British tried to win back loyalty, announcing rewards for loyal landholders

Aftermath

• By the end of 1859, the British regained control but could not continue ruling with the same policies
• British Parliament passed the Act in 1858, transferring powers to the British Crown
• A member of the British Cabinet became Secretary of State for India, advised by the India Council
• The Governor-General was titled Viceroy, representing the Crown
• The British government took direct responsibility for ruling India
• Ruling chiefs were assured their territory would not be annexed, subject to British Queen as Sovereign Paramount
• Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced, and European soldiers increased
• New soldiers to be recruited from Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans
• Land and property of Muslims was confiscated, they were treated with hostility because they were believed to be responsible for the uprising

Changes in Policy

• The British decided to respect religious and social practices
• Policies protected landlords and zamindars, securing land rights
• A new phase of history began after 1857

The Khurda Uprising

• Khurda's uprising against the British colonial policies, began building in the 19th century
• The region was comprised of 105 garhs, 60 large and 1109 small villages
• The king had to give up 4 parganas, superintendence of the Jagannath Temple, and the administration of fourteen garjats, so they entered negotiations with the British
• British showed no inclination, so they tried to assert their rights by force.
• He was deposed and the territory was annexed by the British
• British gave the rights of Jagannath Temple and the revenue was fixed at Puri.
• The British implemented a policy of resuming service called tenures, which bitterly affected the lives of the state, the Paiks.
• Khurda faced revenue demands alongside of a series of short-term settlements,
• British went for a series of short-term settlements which often increased the demands
• British went ignored natural calamities, which was prone to in Orissa,
• Properties were sold off to scheming revenue officials or spectators from Bengal
• Buxi Jagabandhu (Military Commander of the deposed king) become a beggar, surviving on contributions
• The rupee was introduced due to the insistence on payment of revenue with new currency
• The traditional people of Orissa who made salt were deprived
• Auctions of local estates were held bringing estates from Bengal

Insurgency

• The uprising was set off on March, 29 1817 which attacked the police station and other government establishments
• Ripples spread in different directions with Khurda becoming its epicenter
• Zamindars and ryots joined the Paiks with enthusiasm leading to British dislodging the Paiks
• British clamped Martial Law while the King was quickly being captured