The Revolt of 1857: An Overview

The Revolt of 1857: An Overview

• In 1857, the revolt marked 100 years of British rule in India.
• British rule faced numerous civil disturbances and uprisings during this century.
• These uprisings were scattered, localized, and generally violent, fueled by discontent with British rule, though some stemmed from individual grievances.
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British began to gain power in Northern India.
• The Revolt of 1857 was a culmination of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation, and administrative changes.
• These policies impacted rulers, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, traders, artisans, pundits, and Maulvis.
• In 1857, simmering discontent erupted into a violent revolt, shaking the British Empire's foundations.

Nature of the Revolt

• Historians hold diverse views on the revolt's nature.
• V.D. Savarkar called it a "War of Independence".
• Lawrence and Seely labeled it a "Mere Sepoy Mutiny."
• R.C. Majumdar viewed it as "Neither first nor National war of Independence."
• T.R. Holmes described it as "A conflict between civilization and Barbarism."
• Dr. K. Datta saw it as a "military outbreak" exploited by discontented princes and landlords.
• Marxist historians considered it a struggle of soldier-peasant combine against foreign and feudal control.
• The revolt can be seen as a product of widespread discontent against the British government.

Causes of the Revolt

• The revolt of 1857 stemmed from socio-cultural, economic, and political factors affecting all Indian social classes.

British Political Policies: A Primary Cause

• Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse led to the annexation of Indian states due to alleged misgovernance or lack of an heir.
• States annexed by Dalhousie within eight years included Satara(1850), Sambhalpur(1850), Jhansi(1853), Nagpur(1853), Jaipur (1849) and Bhagat(1850).
• This annexation policy angered Indian rulers.
• Titles and pensions of some Indian princes were revoked under the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Nana Sahib, the son of Baji Rao II, lost his pension after his father’s death.
• The Rani of Jhansi lost her right to rule, violating Hindu Law.
• Dalhousie planned to abolish the title of Mughal Emperor after Bahadur Shah II’s death.

Economic Exploitation by the EIC

• British economic policies harmed all sectors of Indian society.
• The British exploited Indian resources and drained its wealth, crippling Indian trade and industry.
• India was reduced to poverty, traditional handicrafts were ruined, and many became jobless, leading to overcrowding in agriculture.
• High revenue demands crippled the agricultural sector.
• Zamindars and peasants were pressured to maximize revenue production.
• Revenue settlements favored the government over the welfare of cultivators.
• Zamindars lost their lands for failing to pay revenue.
• These grievances caused widespread dissatisfaction and turned Indians against the British.

Interference in Socio-Religious Life

• The British viewed Indians as racially inferior and discriminated against them.
• Indians faced restrictions in public spaces like railway compartments, parks, and hotels.
• British attempts to introduce social reforms (e.g., banning Sati, child infanticide, and widow-remarriage) were seen as interference in religious matters.
• The introduction of English education, propagation of Christianity, and changes to Hindu property law alarmed orthodox Indians, who feared disruption of traditional social and religious order.

Military Causes of the Revolt

• There was widespread dissatisfaction within the military due to unequal treatment between Indian and British soldiers.
• Indian soldiers received lower salaries, fewer benefits, and were treated as inferior by British officers.
• The General Enlistment Act, requiring recruits to serve overseas, caused discontent.
• High army ranks were exclusive to the English, and Indians were excluded.
• Indians were prohibited from wearing caste and religious symbols, seen as interference in personal affairs.

Immediate Cause of the Revolt

• The introduction of the new Enfield Rifle and its greased cartridge was the immediate trigger.
• Soldiers had to bite off the cartridge top before loading the rifle.
• The grease was rumored to be made from cow and pig fat, offending both Hindus and Muslims.
• This rumor ignited widespread discontent and sparked the revolt against the British.

Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

• The first sign of unrest appeared in Barrackpore, Bengal, in 1857.
• Sepoy Mangal Pandey attacked and killed two British officers on March 29, 1857.
• The revolt spread to Berhampur in Bengal.
• On April 24, 1857, 90 native cavalrymen in Meerut refused to use greased cartridges.
• Eighty-five of these men were dismissed and sentenced to ten years in prison.
• Mutineers in Meerut began the revolt on May 10 after killing some officers and marching to Delhi.
• "March to Delhi" became the rebels’ battle cry.

Key Locations of the Revolt

• Delhi was seized on May 12, and Bahadur Shah II was declared the emperor of India.
• Bakht Khan led the revolt in Delhi after bringing troops in from Bareilly.
• Nana Sahib led the revolt in Kanpur, declaring himself Peshwa and governor of Bahadur Shah.
• Tantia Tope supported Nana Sahib in Kanpur.
• Rani Laxmi Bai led the mutiny in Jhansi after initial hesitation.
• She captured Gwalior with help from Tantia Tope and Afghan guards after being defeated in Jhansi.
• Hazrat Mahal, the Begum of Awadh, led the revolt in Lucknow.
• She declared her son Brijis as the Nawab of Awadh, opposing the British.
• Henry Lawrence, the British resident, died in Lucknow.
• Other revolt centers included Benares, Allahabad, and Gwalior.
• Sepoys killed senior officers and Europeans.
• Prisoners were released, treasures were plundered, and land records were burned.
• British forces suppressed the rebellion.
• Delhi was recaptured on September 20, 1857.
• Bahadur Shah II was arrested and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
• Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal, refusing to surrender.
• Rani Laxmi Bai died in battle.
• Benares, Bareilly, and Gwalior were retaken by the British.

Reasons for the Revolt's Failure

• The revolt was limited to North India, leaving the South largely unaffected.
• It failed to include all sections of society.
• Many native rulers and large zamindars aided the British in suppressing the revolt.
• Educated Indians did not support the revolt.
• Poor organization and lack of coordinated planning among leaders hindered the revolt.
• The rebels lacked political leadership, military experience, and strategic vision.
• Rebels lacked a unified cause and had differing objectives, lacking a spirit of nationalism.
• The rebels were intellectually and technologically inferior to the British, who had superior military technology.
• The revolt lacked a positive or innovative vision, only aiming to remove British rule without a better political system

Impact of the Revolt

• The revolt led to significant changes in British administration, Indian government policies, and British attitudes.
• The British Crown assumed governance of India from the East India Company.
• The Court of Directors was replaced by the India Council, headed by the Secretary of State for India.
• Territorial expansion was abandoned as native rulers were assured of their states' safety, rights, and the right to adopt heirs.
• The theory of "One charge" was introduced and enforced.
• English racial attitudes became more arrogant and bitter.
• The monopoly of higher services by the English was maintained.
• Social and educational reforms were abandoned, with orthodoxy, religious superstitions, the caste system, and communal and regional differences encouraged as the "divide and rule" policy was implemented.
• Indians faced further economic exploitation, with British national interests prioritized over India's.
• The army was restructured to reinforce British control and prevent future revolts. The number of British soldiers was increased, and Britishers filled higher positions.
• Despite its failure, the Revolt of 1857 was a direct threat to British rule and sowed the seeds of nationalism and the quest for freedom.