The Red Scare

Loyalty Review Board (1947)

• The Truman administration investigated over 3 million federal employees.
• Thousands of federal employees resigned or were terminated between 1947 and 1951.

Smith Act Prosecutions

• American Communist Party leaders were jailed for advocating government overthrow.
• Dennis v. U.S. (1951) resulted in the Supreme Court upholding the Smith Act's constitutionality.

McCarran Internal Security Act (1950)

• Advocating a totalitarian government was made unlawful by this Act.
• The Act restricted employment and travel for members of Communist-front groups.
• It authorized the establishment of subversive detention camps.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

• HUAC investigated Communism in government, the Boy Scouts, and Hollywood.
• Individuals who refused to testify before HUAC were often tried or blacklisted.

Cultural Impact of Anti-Communism

• Films, plays, and writers like Arthur Miller faced scrutiny and attacks.
• Loyalty oaths became a requirement for employment in particular sectors.
• The ACLU defended First Amendment rights for Communist Party members.

Artist Responses to Anti-Communism

• Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" (1948) critiqued blind conformity.
• Lillian Hellman was blacklisted for refusing to testify before HUAC.
• Arthur Miller's "The Crucible" (1953) critiqued anti-Communist persecution.

Espionage Cases

• Fear of Communist espionage was heightened by actual spy cases.
• Alger Hiss was convicted of perjury in the Hiss Case (1948) and linked to Communist espionage.
• Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for espionage in 1953 after a controversial trial.

Joseph McCarthy's Rise

• McCarthy claimed to possess a list of 205 Communists working in the State Department in 1950.
• McCarthy gained political power through sensational and unproven accusations.

McCarthy's Tactics

• He used unsupported accusations to undermine the Truman administration.
• He gained popularity with working-class Americans, but damaged the Democratic Party.

Army-McCarthy Hearings (1954)

• McCarthy was exposed as a bully during televised hearings concerning Communist infiltration in the army.
• The Senate censured McCarthy in December 1954.

Decline of the Red Scare

• The Red Scare diminished because the threat of a Communist takeover was seen as exaggerated.
• Eisenhower and other leaders played a key role in shifting the political discourse.
• A booming economy in the 1950s, following the Korean War armistice, shifted the focus.

Harry S. Truman's Presidency (1945-1953)

• Employment Act of 1946 established the Council of Economic Advisers, aiming to promote full employment, but faced resistance.
• The GI Bill (Servicemen's Readjustment Act, 1944) aided 15 million veterans in transitioning with education, home loans, and business support, White veterans were favored over Black ones.
• The Baby Boom (1945-1960) led to an increased birthrate of 50 million babies and the entry of women into the workforce (1/3 of married women worked by 1960).
• Suburban Growth, symbolized by Levittown (17,000 homes), offered affordable suburban living, yet excluded African Americans through segregation.
• The Rise of the Sun Belt was a product of economic opportunities in defense and warmer climates, which drove migration to Southern and Western states.
• Inflation and Strikes involved postwar inflation surging to 25%, This led to over 4.5 million strikes in 1946, prompting Truman's intervention.
• Republican Congress (1946) ensued Republican control which led to tax cuts for the wealthy and the Taft-Hartley Act, which limited union power.
• Election of 1948: Truman defied expectations, defeating Dewey and securing a decisive win.
• Fair Deal (1949) saw Proposed reforms blocked by conservatives, but minimum wage and Social Security expansions were passed.

Eisenhower's Presidency (1953-1961)

• Modern Republicanism sought balanced budgets, expanded New Deal programs (Social Security, minimum wage), and the creation of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
• Interstate Highway System (1956): Authorized 42,000 miles of highways, which boosted defense, the economy, and suburbanization.
• The Postwar Prosperity era saw strong economic growth, low inflation (1.5%), and a tripled per-capita income between 1945 and 1960.

John F. Kennedy's Presidency (1961-1963)

• New Frontier: Kennedy faced challenges passing his domestic agenda (education, healthcare, civil rights), but achieved successes in trade and defense spending.
• Economic Growth: tariff reductions with European nations and defense spending stimulated the economy.

Lyndon B. Johnson's Presidency (1963-1969)

• Great Society: expanded on civil rights, education, healthcare, and poverty reduction, with substantial social reforms (Medicare, Civil Rights Act of 1964).
• Economic Expansion ensued with tax cuts boosting consumer spending and economic growth.

Richard Nixon's Presidency (1969-1974)

• New Federalism involved shifting responsibility for social programs to state and local governments through revenue sharing.
• Stagflation occurred when Nixon faced inflation and recession; imposing wage/price controls, taking the dollar off the gold standard, and raising tariffs on imports.

Gerald Ford (1974-1977) & Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)

• Ford's Efforts on Inflation intended to encourage voluntary measures to curb inflation, however, the economy worsened with high unemployment.
• Carter's Struggles with Inflation ensued because in 1979-1980, inflation hit 13%, despite efforts to reduce energy consumption and regulate inflation.
• Volcker's High-Interest Rates saw the Fed chairman raising interest rates to curb inflation, resulting in a severe recession but reducing inflation by 1982.

Economic Shift in the 1970s

• The Post-WWII economy weakened as global competition grew (e.g., Japan, Germany); new technology reduced high-paying manufacturing jobs.
• The U.S. began to experience a decline in living standards for the first time since the war.

Consumer Culture and Conformity

• Television: By 1961, there was approximately 1 TV set per 3.3 Americans. Shows, like Leave It to Beaver reinforced suburban, white, middle-class values.
• Advertising: Aggressive marketing across media promoted materialism; the rise of shopping centers, credit cards, and fast food chains followed.
• Books & Music: Paperback books surged in popularity; rock and roll (e.g., Elvis) became popular among youth.
• Corporate America: Domination occurred by conglomerates, white-collar jobs, and corporate conformity (e.g., “Organization Man").
• Religion: There was a Post-WWII expansion of religious affiliations, the focus on identity and socializing, as seen in Protestant, Catholic, Jew (1955).

Women's Roles

• Homemaking was reinforced by the Baby boom and suburban life, thereby reinforcing traditional homemaker roles, which were promoted by Dr. Benjamin Spock's book.
• Workforce Entry saw more women working, but they faced being seen as wives/mothers, earning lower wages.

Social Critics

• David Riesman critiqued the society's shift from “inner-directed” to “other-directed" individuals (The Lonely Crowd, 1958).
• John Kenneth Galbraith criticized wealthy Americans that were ignoring societal needs (The Affluent Society, 1958).
• C. Wright Mills warned of corporate dehumanization (White Collar, 1951) and threats to freedom (The Power Elite, 1956).

Novels and Rebellion

• Literary Rebellion: The Catcher in the Rye (Salinger, 1951) and Catch-22 (Heller, 1961) critiqued societal conformity.
• Beatniks: Writers like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg rebelled against societal norms, advocating spontaneity and drug use.

Assassination and the End of the Postwar Era

• Kennedy Assassination: He was assassinated on Nov. 22, 1963; conspiracy theories questioned the official story.
• This Loss of Trust then marked the beginning of declining trust in government institutions.

In Retrospect

• Legacy ensued where Kennedy's call for public service inspired some, but the Vietnam War and societal tensions led to disillusionment.
• By 1968, Counterculture had replaced the idealism of the 1950s and it was replaced by social and political upheaval.