The Ottoman Empire Before WWI

The Ottoman Empire Before World War I

• Before 1830, the Ottoman Empire encompassed Mesopotamia, the Red Sea, and most of the North African Coast
• The Ottomans lost Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya over the subsequent 80 years
• Territories closer to home were also lost in the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913
• Britain, France, and Russia started planning to exploit the Ottoman Empire's potential demise for their own advantage

Sultan Abdul Hamid II's Perspective

• Sultan Abdul Hamid II thought Western European powers were engaging in dishonest tactics
• He believed they supported nationalist movements for independence within the Ottoman Empire
• The Sultan was convinced that European powers were utilizing religion, especially Christianity, to mobilize these movements and weaken the Ottoman Empire
• European powers viewed the unrest in the Arab world as an opportunity after almost 400 years of Ottoman rule

Arab Perspectives on the Caliph

• Arab leaders and intellectuals in the provinces contemplated gaining independence from the Ottomans
• Common Arabs saw the Sultan in Istanbul as the Caliph of Islam, the leader of the Muslim world
• Throughout the Arab world, there was a strong sense of respect and allegiance to the Caliph

The British Challenge to the Caliph

• In 1917, the British captured 700 Iraqi soldiers and offered them freedom in exchange for supporting an Arab revolt against the Ottomans
• Few Iraqis accepted, as they were uneasy about challenging the Caliph
• The British approached Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, who was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, leader of the Hashemite people, and ruler of Islam's holiest site
• The British believed he was the only one who could challenge the Caliph in Istanbul

Arab Support for the Ottoman Empire

• Most Arabs largely backed the Ottoman Empire on the eve of World War I
• It was seen as a protector of Islamic identity during a time of growing European colonialism
• After 1908, many Arab Christians and Jews welcomed the liberal reforms
• Calls for independence for the Arab people were rare during this period

The Young Turks and Their Impact

• The new leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress (The Young Turks) carried out a coup in 1908, removing Sultan Abdul Hamid II from power
• Their initial goal was to maintain the empire through constitutional rule
• They also found themselves defending the empire against great power encroachments and nationalist uprisings
• The Young Turks ended up fighting to preserve the empire, even if it wasn't their original intention

Ottoman Shift Towards Turkish Nationalism

• The Young Turks' defeat in the Balkans strengthened their resolve and tightened their control over their Arab territories
• Turkish nationalism saw a significant increase and solidification due to the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913
• The Young Turks' rule became more authoritarian
• They initially sought an alliance with Britain and France but were turned down because those countries did not want to go against Russia

Ottoman Alliance with Germany

• The Ottomans and Germany shared a history of friendship
• Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Istanbul in 1889 and Jerusalem in 1898
• He proclaimed his friendship with the world's 300 million Muslims
• Germany was a natural ally for the Ottomans

Strategic Considerations

• The Young Turks took a chance, hoping the European War would be brief
• They hoped that the alliance with Germany would strengthen the borders and institutions of the Ottoman state
• Germany needed the deal just as much as the Ottomans since the Ottomans could open new Eastern fronts against Russia and the British
• According to German General Eric Ludendorf, the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war enabled the Central Powers to continue fighting for another two years

Enver Pasha and the Treaty of Alliance

• Enver Pasha, a leader of the Young Turk government, secured the Treaty of Alliance with Germany on August 1, 1914
• Enver Pasha admired everything German, including the language, military training, and Otto von Bismarck's modernization of the state

Ottoman Entry into the War

• In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire formally joined the war
• The Grand Mufti urged Muslims to join a Jihad against the Entente Powers
• The Germans believed that this call could undermine their enemies' war efforts by inciting widespread uprisings in British and French colonies
• The Germans launched a campaign, led by Max von Oppenheim, to influence Muslims fighting for the Allies

Max von Oppenheim's Role

• Max von Oppenheim was a German lawyer, diplomat, and ancient historian
• He was deeply committed to his German patriotism and had a specific interest in the Middle East
• He planned the route for the Berlin to Baghdad Railway, to compete with the British and bring the region under stronger German influence
• Oppenheim discovered Tell Halaf in Northern Syria in 1899, revealing a city built in 6,000 BC

Arab Troops in the Ottoman Army

• Arab troops were forced to fight on both sides when Istanbul entered the war in mid-November 1914, for the Ottomans and as conscripts for the European allies
• Hundreds of thousands of Arabs perished in the conflict
• Egypt, technically part of the Ottoman Empire but under British occupation since 1882, offered Britain 1,200,000 recruits, with 500,000 dying

Jamal Pasha's Rule in Greater Syria

• Jamal Pasha was appointed governor of Greater Syria by the Young Turk government
• He was merciless towards anyone suspected of Arab nationalist sympathies, earning him the nickname "Al-Saffah" (the Bloodshedder)
• The British promised Hussein and his family future control over a greater Arab state encompassing present-day Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan

Wartime Hardships in the Arab World

• The war had a significant impact on Arab nationalists, with thousands being conscripted and crops/livestock requisitioned
• Arabs suffered greatly in Egypt, Iraq, and Greater Syria
• While the Western Front is well-known, the Ottoman Empire suffered far more than any of the Continental Powers, with 14-25% of its population dying

Health Crisis in Mesopotamia (Iraq)

• Indian colonial soldiers, numbering 600,000, brought diseases such as typhus, cholera, dysentery, and a wasting fever
• The casualty rate from epidemics was much higher than that from fighting at the front
• Typhus was spread by refugees fleeing from the front in Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, carrying lice and fleas

Ottoman Military Efforts

• The Ottomans attacked the British at the Suez Canal and emerged victorious against the Allies at Gallipoli in 1915
• In 1916, they forced the Indian expeditionary force in Mesopotamia to surrender
• Sharif Hussein's Arab Revolt was contained along the Hijaz railway line

Disaster at Sarikamish

• During the winter of 1914-1915, Ottoman military commander Enver Pasha dispatched tens of thousands of soldiers to fight the Russians at Sarikamish in eastern Anatolia
• Few troops were adequately equipped with weapons or boots
• As many as 60,000 Ottoman troops died, with frostbite and typhus claiming two-thirds of the lives, rather than combat with the Russians
• Enver Pasha attributed the defeat to Armenians, whom he accused of siding with the Russians

Armenian Deportation

• The government rounded up 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Istanbul in April 1915
• Armenian men were killed, army conscripts were placed in labor battalions, and women, children, and the elderly were deported to the Syrian desert
• According to some historians, the Young Turk government forcibly displaced up to 1.5 million Armenians, resulting in as many as 800,000 deaths

Jewish Life in Salonica

• Thessaloniki (Salonica) in modern Greece was primarily a Jewish city called the "Jerusalem of the Balkans" following the expulsion of Jews from southern Spain in 1492
• Ottoman reforms in the mid-19th century, which granted Jews and Christians equality with Muslims, benefited Salonica

David Ben-Gurion's Early Life

• David Ben-Gurion, who would later become Israel's first prime minister, studied in Salonica and Istanbul
• He voiced support for the Ottoman Army and persuaded approximately 40 Jews to join a pro-government militia in Jerusalem
• In an effort to garner support for the Ottoman Empire, he traveled to America

Ben-Gurion's Shift in Allegiance

• In August 1916, the British launched an offensive against the Ottomans in Suez under the command of General Edmund Allenby
• By early 1917, they had driven the Ottomans out of the Sinai Peninsula and were advancing towards Palestine
• David Ben-Gurion enlisted in a Jewish Regiment of the British Army in London before going back to Palestine to continue his political career

Aftermath of World War I

• The First World War led to the emergence of three nationalist movements: Turkish, Zionist, and Arab
• The relationship between Turks and Arabs was forever changed, marking the end of four centuries of Ottoman rule
• The increased awareness resulting from this shift in power foreshadowed the rise of Arab nationalism in the future