The Nature and Purpose of Science

The Nature and Purpose of Science

• Science seeks answers about the natural world through evidence and logic
• Scientific thinking involves making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, and testing
• The scientific method includes systematic observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, formulation, testing, and modification

Scientific Discoveries

• The discovery of DNA's double helix structure in the 1950s led to an improved understanding of DNA replication and hereditary information
• Vaccines, discovered in the 1700s, helped curb the spread of serious diseases
• The sequencing of the human genome in 2003 aided in understanding the genetic mutations that lead to cancer
• DNA polymerase discovery in 1956 allowed scientists to synthesize new DNA sequences
• Michael Faraday's 1821 discovery of the electric motor
• Leo Baekeland, a Belgian scientist, accidentally created the first plastic, Bakelite

The Nature of Science

• Science, mathematics, and technology are interdependent and mutually reinforcing
• Science is a systematic study of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and theory formulation
• Science spans fields like nursing, biochemistry, forensic science, and conservation biology
• Science promotes scientific literacy and critical thinking, exemplified by data collection and analysis
• Science extends to practical applications and societal impact
• Citizen science enriches data collection and analysis
• Conservation biology highlights biodiversity's intrinsic value, human well-being, and sustainability

The Scientific World View

• The universe operates under consistent patterns that can be discovered through intellect and sensory instruments
• Basic scientific rules are uniformly applicable throughout the universe
• Scientific knowledge is durable, with modifications happening instead of outright rejections, and evolving as observations challenge theories

Limitations of Science

• Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions
• Science may not be applicable or useful for beliefs that are inherently unprovable or outside empirical examination like supernatural beliefs

Research Ethics: Key Terms

• Informed consent: Individuals voluntarily agree to participate in research after being fully informed about procedures, risks, and benefits
• Fair treatment: Participants are chosen based on scientific goals, not vulnerability or privilege
• Exploitation: Unethical treatment by taking advantage of vulnerability or lack of power

Ethical Dilemmas in Drug Trials

• A multinational pharmaceutical company conducting clinical trials in a developing country faces ethical dilemmas
• Participants may have limited education and not fully understand associated risks
• If the drug is successful, it may be unaffordable for trial participants
• Conducting trials in vulnerable populations raises concerns about possible exploitation of participants

Moral Responsibilities in Science

• Ethics are essential moral principles that guide scientists, fostering integrity and honesty, as well as respect, within scientific endeavors.
• The Declaration of Helsinki was developed by the World Medical Association and first adopted in 1964
• The declaration provides ethical principles for medical research involving human participants
• These ethical guidelines arose as a result of atrocities conducted during World War II

Importance of Ethics in Biological Science

• Ethical guidelines ensure research is informed, respectful, maintains privacy and confidentiality, and guarantees good practice in research
• Ethical norms minimize error and promote truth
• Bioethics focuses on human life and well-being, although it occasionally addresses the non-human biological environment
• Ethical treatment of laboratory animals is vital, morally and scientifically, and poor care can undermine research integrity
• Bioethics plays a crucial role in navigating complex issues in the life sciences

Ethical Considerations in Science

• Ethical norms include more than just societal norms
• Ethical norms are interpreted based on individual values and experiences
• Public trust relies on responsible research conduct, accurate findings, and reliability
• Ethical norms help prevent scientific misconduct, including fraud, plagiarism, and data fabrication
• Ethical considerations guide the development and application of new technologies
• Human and animal subjects participating in scientific studies must have prioritized well being and safety

Ethical Principles

• Ethical frameworks are challenged by advances in science, including animal sentience and the human genome mapping
• Ethics encompasses environmental issues, such as animal rights, welfare, and the impact of animal agriculture
• Ethics involve complex issues like global justice, environmental sustainability, and the ethical implications of new technologies:
  • Autonomy: The right of individuals to make their own choices and decisions
  • Beneficence: The principle of doing good and promoting well-being
  • Non-maleficence: The principle of avoiding harm
  • Justice: The fair and equitable distribution of resources and opportunities
  • Respect for persons: Recognising the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals, including animals

Respect for Research Subjects: Informed Consent

• Researchers have an ethical obligation to obtain informed consent, ensuring participants' autonomy and understanding of the study's details
• Typical elements of an informed consent form include:
  • An information sheet which explains the trial's purpose, clinical procedures, duration, treatments, benefits, risks, confidentiality, and compensation
  • a certificate of consent with statements about confidentiality, voluntary participation, and withdrawal
• Transparency entails open communication, which builds trust and facilitates a collaborative environment between researchers and participants.

Respecting Rights and Privacy

• Researchers must handle personal information with care, maintain confidentiality, and respect the rights of participants
• Informed consent, transparency, and privacy protection are integral to the essence and reliability of biological sciences

Data Integrity

• Accurate and honest data collection in research enhances the trustworthiness of science
• Data integrity involves gathering, analyzing, and reporting data accurately and truthfully

Avoiding Bias

• Bias involves personal choices or beliefs that may inappropriately influence the collection or interpretation of data
• Peer review and blind or double blind studies are all helpful in avoiding bias
• Objectivity maintains reliable research and bases conclusions on data, and should undergo scrutiny by other scientists

Honesty In Reporting

• Truthful reporting means presenting research results accurately, without alterations or embellishments
• The accuracy of reported findings is important and influential for not only the scientific community, but also public policy and societal understanding

Acknowledging Limitations In Research

• Research limitations are any constraints in design, methods, or researchers' affect and influence on the interpretation of the research finding
• Transparency about a study's limitations helps with applying findings, building trust and encouraging further related research

Data Manipulation

• Data manipulation involves altering or cherry-picking data to support a desired conclusion
• Ethical manipulation undermines the principles of scientific research

Upholding Honesty

• Clear communication should avoid misleading language and presenting conclusions inaccurately
• Peer review is critical in maintaining honesty in reporting

Consequences of Unethical Practice In Science

• Deviations from a code of ethics known as "unethical practices", can have far-reaching implications and highlight two major facets of implications
• Unethical procedures undermine public trust in scientific research
• Mistrust in medical research can lead to more limited participation in clinical trials and impede the development of new treatments and therapies
• The Tuskegee syphilis study from 1932-1972 is known for ethical violations, as medical care was withheld from African-American men infected with syphilis
• The Hwang Woo-Suk scandal claimed advances in stem cell research, but his results were faked

Ethical Dilemmas in Science

• Ethical dilemmas occur when having to make a choice between two or more options that possess potential ethical consequences, balancing inquiry's benefits with standards
• Decision-making involves:
  • Identifying the dilemma
  • Gathering information
  • Considering the stakeholders and weighing options
  • Making a decision best aligned to the ethical principles involved

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Questions to consider include:
  • Why does ethics matter?
  • What are ethical considerations?
  • What is an ethical violation?
  • What is an ethical violation in research?
  • How do you get ethical approval?
  • What is research misconduct?
  • What exactly is plagiarism?
  • What does it mean to be an accredited researcher?
  • What is the potential for harm?
  • What are the types of plagiarism?
  • What is our historical past and how have we changed it?

Plagiarism and Academic Integrity

• Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work or ideas as one's own without proper attribution and violating core scholarly standards
• Forms of plagiarism is:
  • Direct plagiarism, or copying text verbatim without citation
  • Mosaic plagiarism, or patchwork plagiarism, or incorporating phrases, ideas, or sections from multiple sources without citation
  • Accidental plagiarism, or an individual neglects to cite sources, misquotes texts, or unintentionally paraphrases a source

Citation Techniques

• Proper citation involves correctly acknowledging the sources of information and ideas in your work
• Common citation styles include APA, MLA and Chicago
• Citation format is: In-text citation is (Author, year); reference list is Author, year, title, publisher, and location

Consequences of Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is a serious offense ranging from the loss of credit for an assignment, to expulsion from an academic program, damage of professional reputation, and potential legal action
• Academic integrity is vital for maintaining the credibility and quality of research, and involves fostering a culture of respect, honesty, and accountability