The Islamic Heartland Under Pressure: Reform and Decline

The gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire due to factors like European industrialization, Western expansion, and internal weaknesses.

A set of sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing the Ottoman Empire based on Western European models.

These reforms included legal equality for all religions, improved administration, modernization of the military, and encouragement of Western education and culture.

A group of Turkish intellectuals who advocated for modernization. They were instrumental in the 1908 revolution that forced the Ottoman Sultan to implement reforms.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire's military stemmed from the corruption and stagnation of its elite military force, the Janissaries, who resisted changes.

The Ottoman Empire lacked centralized control as local governors sought to establish their own authority, further weakening the central government.

The Young Turks' success was a result of internal pressures for reform and external threats from European powers.

The Young Turks' successful revolution led to modernization efforts and marked a turning point in the Ottoman Empire's history.

A state-building project of Muhammad Ali that included hospitals, schools, factories, and the army, leading to Egypt's eventual independence from the Ottoman Empire.

The shift in Egyptian agriculture from subsistence farming to cash crops for export, driven by Muhammad Ali's modernization efforts. This led to significant social changes and inequality.

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani's belief that Islamic renewal required religious purification, Muslim unity, and the overthrow of corrupt rulers and foreign powers.

The Ottoman military force that declined due to internal corruption, external pressures from European powers, and the introduction of modern warfare.

The 1916 secret agreement between Britain and France that divided up Arab lands in the Middle East, contradicting British promises of Arab independence and leading to frustration and distrust.

The 1917 statement by the British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour, promising a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This sparked controversy and conflict, creating contradictory promises with the Arabs.

A form of Jewish nationalism advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state, originally envisioned by Theodore Herzl.

A Jewish journalist who advocated for Zionism, believing a Jewish state was necessary for the security and dignity of the Jewish people.

The Arab Revolt was a significant uprising against Ottoman rule in the Arab territories. It was primarily driven by Arab nationalism and the desire for independence from the Ottoman Empire.

The process of dividing the Ottoman Empire after World War I, leading to the creation of new countries and the establishment of mandates, which often reflected European control and exploitation.

Mandates were territories under the control and oversight of European powers after the partition of the Ottoman Empire. These mandates reflect a lack of full independence for the newly formed nations.

The legacy of British promises to the Arabs during World War I—promises of independence—that were not fulfilled, contributing to feelings of betrayal and distrust towards Western powers.

The combination of economic and cultural differences and land disputes leading to tension and conflict between Jewish settlers and Arab populations in Palestine.

The increase in Jewish immigration to Palestine, particularly after the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, fueled by the persecution of Jews in Europe.

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was a secular nationalist coalition group led by Yasser Arafat. In 1993, they agreed with Israel to start a peace process and grant Palestinian self-rule. This was a significant step in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but it was not without its challenges.

The relationship between Arabs and Jews since the establishment of Israel has been fraught with conflict and wars. Territorial disputes and differing national identities have fueled these tensions.

The Six Day War changed the map of the Middle East, shifting the balance of power and exacerbating the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel gained territory and became a military powerhouse, making it more difficult to find a lasting solution.

Intifada is a prolonged campaign of civil disobedience, especially by Palestinian youth against Israeli soldiers. It means "shaking off" in Arabic.

The Camp David Accords were a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Carter. It was a big step towards ending the conflict, but it was not without its critics.

Hezbollah is a Shiite Muslim political party and militant group based in Lebanon. Known as "a state within a state," Hezbollah opposes Israel and Western influence in the Middle East. They are considered a terrorist organization by the United States and many other countries.

One of the main challenges to Turkey's secularism is the rise of political Islam. This has blurred the lines between religion and the state, leading to tensions and debate.

Jewish settlers in Palestine faced many difficulties, particularly from Arab farmers who felt they were unjustly displaced. This fueled resentment and led to further conflict.

A kibbutz is a Jewish collective farm where each member shares equally in the work, rewards, and defense. It was a model of communal living and a symbol of Jewish self-reliance.

The main issue driving the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis was Jewish migration to Palestine. This was especially true during the 1930s under the rule of Adolf Hitler.

Anwar Sadat, the Egyptian president, negotiated a peace agreement with Israel at Camp David. However, his assassination in 1981 set back these efforts, and relations between Egypt and Israel deteriorated.

The Arab Spring uprisings shook the political order in the Middle East, leading to an upheaval with secular and religious factions clashing over the nature of government and social change.

The conflict between Palestinians and Israelis has been fueled by failed negotiations, violent outbreaks, and the rise of groups like Hamas, which controls the West Bank and Gaza.

The British tried to broker a compromise between Jews and Arabs in Palestine, but their efforts failed and exacerbated the conflict.

Arab nationalist anger was mainly directed towards Jewish settlers, creating a hostile environment. The key issue was land disputes, along with cultural and economic differences.

The 1979 Iranian Revolution saw a fundamentalist movement overthrow the pro-Western Shah Pahlavi. Ayatollah Khomeini, an Islamic fundamentalist, took control, leading to a shift towards an Islamic republic with a strong emphasis on religious law and values.

Following the Iranian Revolution, Iraq, fearing a similar uprising among its own Shi'ite population, launched a surprise attack on Iran in 1980. This led to an eight-year war that resulted in hundreds of thousands of casualties and ended in 1988 with a modest victory for Iran.

After the costly Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Iraq's leader, invaded Kuwait in 1990, aiming to seize its vast oil wealth. This act was met with international condemnation, leading to the Persian Gulf War, which resulted in Iraq's defeat and the restoration of Kuwaiti independence.

In 2003, the US led an invasion of Iraq, citing the country's alleged weapons of mass destruction and links to terrorism. The US occupation was lengthy and fraught with violence from an insurgency, lasting until 2011.

The ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestinian territories revolves around the issue of land and its control. Israel claims the territory it controls, citing historical and religious ties, while Palestinians seek their own independent state.

Israel's settlements in the West Bank, considered illegal under international law, have been a major source of tension in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These settlements are seen as encroaching on Palestinian territory and undermining a two-state solution.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict involves ongoing debates over the nature of a future political solution, with two main proposals: a two-state solution, which aims for the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel; and a one-state solution, which would either involve a unified state with equal rights for Palestinians and Israelis or the dominance of one nation over the other.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict involves a complex issue of Palestinian refugees who were displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Many Palestinians seek the right to return to their former homes in Israel, while Israel opposes this, fearing demographic changes and security concerns.

Iran maintains a hostile stance towards Israel, viewing it as an enemy due to its perceived support for Israel's actions against the Palestinians and its close ties to the United States. Iran has engaged in proxy wars, supporting militant groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon, to confront Israel.

The Iranian Revolution's impact on global affairs was significant. It led to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, the seizure of American hostages, and the empowerment of the Islamic State, creating ripple effects across the region and beyond.

The Persian Gulf War (1991) is viewed by some as a contributing factor to the 9/11 attacks. The US's involvement in the war, seen by some Muslims as an attempt to control the region's oil resources, created resentment and fueled anti-American sentiment.

The Iranian Revolution, followed by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, led to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the region. The US, seeking to counter Soviet influence, armed and supported Afghan mujahideen, including groups that later formed the Taliban.

The US, having backed Afghan mujahideen against the Soviets, withdrew its support for the country, leaving the Taliban to seize power. This withdrawal had an impact on the rise of extremism and instability in Afghanistan.

The events leading to 9/11 are often viewed as a culmination of various factors, including the Iranian Revolution, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf War, and the US withdrawal from Afghanistan. These events created a climate of resentment and instability that fueled extremism.