The Invention of Asia: A European Construct?

Introduction to Asia: A European Construct?

• European commentators have used 'Asia' to denote a geographical and cultural commonality for an extended period.
• In ancient Greek texts, 'Asia' pertained to Anatolia, which is part of modern-day Turkey.
• Homer's Illiad indicated a continent restricting eastward Aegean sailors, possibly named after the West Anatolian principality Assuwa.
• Some cultures have historically referred to people from Asia as people of the Sun or the East.
• The Greek historian Herodotus, portrayed history as a sustained rivalry between 'Asia' and 'Europe'.
• The concept of 'Asia' largely emerged from Europe's need for an "other" to define its "self."
• 'Asia' served as a backdrop, providing a coherent and culturally distinct "other" against which a diverse and fragmented "Europe" defined itself.
• 16th-century geographic works distinguished 'Europa' as associated with weapons, science, and Christianity, versus 'Asia', which was linked to elaborate attire, camels, and monkeys.
• Montesquieu (1689-1755) characterized Europe as 'progress' and Asia as 'stagnation'.
• In European literature, 'Asiatic' was later associated with lavish splendor, vulgarity, and arbitrary authority.

Edward Said (Orientalism, 1978)

• Terms like 'Asia,' 'Asiatic,' and 'Oriental' were often used pejoratively.
• Decadence in the 'East' underscored the vitality of the 'West.'
• 'The Orient' holds varied meanings, representing not just proximity to Europe, but also the place of Europe’s richest colonies, cultural rival, the foundation of Europe's civilizations/languages, and a recurring image of "the Other."

Is Asia an Asian Creation? Idea of Asian Unity-in-Asia

• Okakura Tenshin (1862-1913) emphasized that Chinese and Indian civilizations share 'love for the Ultimate and Universal', distinguishing Asians from Mediterranean and Baltic peoples who focus on specifics instead of life's purpose.
• Spirituality is a unifying factor in Asia.

INDIA

Vivekananda (1863-1902)

• Suggested Europe dominated materially in modern times, while Asia influenced spiritually throughout history.
• Asia produces spiritual giants just as the Occident produces giants in politics and science.

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

• Promoted a renascent Asian civilization despite variations within ‘oriental’ cultures, especially a spiritual civilization for 'the East'.
• Tagore helped found an Asian Research Institute at 60, promoting language/culture studies for Asians/Europeans.

Interaction Between Scholars

• Scholars spread their ideas, e.g., Vivekananda visited Japan in the late 19th century.
• Okakura spent 1901-02 in India.
• Tagore knew of/was impressed by Okakura believing in an 'Asiatic mind'.
• Tagore traveled to Japan, China, and Southeast Asia, building relationships with leading thinkers.

Exclusive Nationalism?

• The Russo-Japanese War led to new Asian pride.
• Japan wanted a Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere centered around Asia.
• Japan-led Asianism led to Colonialism.
• Late 19th/early 20th-century Japanese thinkers favored abandoning Asia to turn to Europe.
• The 1947 Asian Relations Conference in India included an India-dominated “Inter-Asian Art Exhibition”.
• The journal Xinyaxiya (New Asia) launched in China (1930) advocated Sun Yat-sen's nationalist cause, asserting China's regeneration would begin Asian people's regeneration.

Examples of Regional Unity

• No overarching organization encompassing all of Asia.
• Regional institutions blur sub-regional boundaries.
• It's difficult to achieve unity in Asia for four reasons:
  • Internal "Asia" ideas originate from ethnocentric perspectives related to India, China, and Japan.
  • Excessive ethnic, political, religious, and linguistic diversity.
  • Absence of a continent-wide regional body.
  • Regional rivalries prevent cooperation.

Ethnic Diversity

• China: 95% Han with over 50 National Minority Groups.
• India: Has three major groups, 74% Indo-Aryan, 23% Dravidian, and 3% Mongoloid.
• Indonesia: 45% Javanese with over 300 ethnic groups.
• Malaysia: 50% Malay, 30% Chinese and 9% Indian with small homogenous populations in Japan/Korea,.
• Philippines: Has a diverse population based on language, ancestry and religion Tagalog comprises 28%, Cebuano 14%, Ilocano with 8%, Bisaya/Binisaya 8%, and Hiligaynon Illonggo with 8%.
• Singapore: 79% Chinese, 13% Malay, 7% Indian.
• Thailand: Majority Thai, 14% Chinese.
• Vietnam: Over 50 ethnic groups almost 90% Vietnamese, some 1% Chinese or Hoa.

Religious Diversity

• China: Mixture of Taoist, Buddhist beliefs with official Atheism.
• Indonesia: 89% Muslim with 7% Christian.
• India: 82% Hindu, 13% Muslim along with Christians, Buddhists, and Sikhs.
• Japan: 85% Shinto and Buddhist.
• Korea: 30% Buddhist with 25% Christian.
• The religious make up of Malaysia includes Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist.
• Philippines: 82% Catholic with some Muslims.
• Singapore: 43% Buddhist, 15% Muslim.
• Thailand: 95% Buddhist, more Muslims.
• Vietnam: 81% Atheist, 10% Buddhist, 7% Catholic.

Linguistic Diversity

• India has 22 scheduled languages as well as over 19,500 languages/dialects spoken.
• Philippines: Some 11 languages, plus 87 dialects spoken.

Political Diversity

• South Korea, Jpapn, Taiwan, and India are democracies.
• North Korea, Brunei, and China are led by authoritarian regimes.
• Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia Thailand have monarchies
• Afghanistan, and North Korea are failed countries
• Singapore has a GDP of 65,233.28 USD.
• Japan has a GDP of 40,246.88 USD.
• Nepal has a GDP of 1,071.05 USD.
• Afghanistan has a GDP of 507.10 USD.

Basis for Suggesting Asian Unity:

Buddhism

• Buddhism is the primary religion in Bhutan, Myanmar, Cambodia, Tibet, Laos, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• There are sizable Buddhist communities in China, Japan, Taiwan, Macau, North Korea, Nepal, Vietnam, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea.
• Pilgrims journeying between Nara (Japan), Sian (China), Korea, Srivijaya (Southeast Asia), and Nalanda (India) may have felt a collective 'Asian' identity.

Confucian Unity

• Evident In East Asia and Southeast Asia and reminds people that "Confucian states": China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan hadstanding nature cultural relations
• Korea has been said to have mode of dressing are copies of China (Hirth and Rockhill, 1967:167).
• Japan employs Five Classics, Chinese standard works.
• Japan and Korea have Chinese notations.

“Others before yourself"

Hinduism

Civilization

• Champa was seen in Southern parts of central Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, Khmer Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in Malay Peninsula
• Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, Medang Kingdom, Singhasari and Majapahit Empire in Java, Bali, Phillippines Archipeligo.

Islam

• 62% of Muslims worldwide are in Asia.
• The largest are in Indonesia, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh

Colonialism

Definitions: -(1) Asia, (2) Asia-Pacific, (3) Asian Pacific, (4) Asia and the Pacific, (5) Asia/Pacific,(6) East Asia, (7) Eastern Asia, (8) Far East, (9) Greater East Asia, (10) Pacific, (11) Pacific Asia, and (12) Pacific Rim.

Perspectives: -Definitions of Asia factor in Power, prosperity and Identity(Amitav Acharya, 2010)

• British power was in the Far East.
• Japanese power was in Greater East Asia
• American power lies with pacific. -Pacific Rim, Pacific Asia, Asia-Pacific (APEC) and Asia Pacific correlate to rising economic interdependence and prosperity

“Asia Rising”: Acharya’s Critique

• Early Asian imagination of Asian relied upon a defense against Western power-politics
• Asia Rising can be considered to be a means cover up inter powers
• Asia is rising implies the imposition of discourse of western politics
• All or Asia isn’t as hyped to an extent
• Asian values of thebate get associated with authoritarian
• Rise of Asia is neither linear nor irreversible

Key Points

• Asia' can unite 'Asians' and 'Europeans'.
• The exact meaning of 'Asia' is contested.
• Asia's identity will be increasingly constructed internally.
• Asian development of the idea of Asia isn't automatically unproblematic and should not be controlled by the regional elite.

Importance of Asia:

• Population: Asia has about 60% of the world's population with various histories/religions/cultures. China-Indonesia-India are the three most populated countries in the world.
• Religion: Indonesia, Bangladesh Pakistan, and are three largest Islamic nations. Asia homes the most Muslims of the world than any other area
• Civilizations: In Asia. Asian great civilizations like those of India, China, Japan and have world contribution. . Asia is also the home of several major religions (Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, and Shintoism).
• Longest life expectancies. "Australia, Japan Singapore, Hong Kong. And one off infant mortality rates are found there.” Diaspora: Southeast Asian -50 million Chinese mostly. There are 32 million Indians over seas.
• Nuclear weapon states. Asia have China- North Korea- Pakistan- India. If added then 5
• Economic might. Asia is to contribute 60% by 2030 and 60 percent of the global growth. WEF report is that it will 90 percent out of entering economy from of middle class. In the top 5 global economies in Asia China- Japan and India.
• Military might. Top ten military ranking Asia holds 5 states are in top ten military rankings.
• Internet Users. Approximately 50 percent of the world.

Factors shaping Contemporary Asia from Colonialism and Historic events

(1) Colonialism (2) Collective memories (3) Nationalism (4) Pacifism. Many of these factors are the same in some of impact on Asia and interrelated

Cartography

• Surveying/mapping enabled economic/political benefits for colonizers.
• The rise in ideological generation was simultaneous
• Imperialistic project helped to bring back those countries
• revenue generation has had some complexities with traditional socio-cultural

Sovereignty

Sovereignty of Asia has been trapped to that of autonomy. This is that states has paranoia that powerful The British was their securing ways of hand in that those Afghanistan and Sri Lnanka.India threat to be small states because they’re large

Rise of Nations

State in Asia was an unnatural creation due to managing the system.

• Channels of nationalism been transferred via west for richness.
• India , Tamil, Maweshi are just name for an ethic conflict within Pakistan and Nepal .

Bureaucratic structure

• The centralized to where there was rigidity to the bureaucracy. Elitism with post -colonial states in south Asia. Civil military oligarchy Pakistan for one.
• Political apparatus was result civil military. Pakistan and Myanmar for example

Collective Memory

• Namely, the judgements or beliefs about the past. History through textbooks and museums. Through this we will create facts by through a form of reputation.

Memory viewpoints-Perspective

• Presentists is beliefs held pasts are hostage with a focus on the moment and only real is now.
• Culture- A system that defines all things around us including our memories

Asia and the Century of Humiliation Defeat in the war in 1839 to 1842 by British and its unequal treaties Defeat Summer palace was ransack by Fench-British forces by the second defeat

• Russia got outer Manchuria
• Vietnanm and the first Japan
• the revolt that followed that lead nation alliance eight nation to surpress in 1880 and on
• Demands over 21 items that Japan insisted on including in Tibet.
• Manchuria being invaded in 1922 .
• Sino Japanese War lead to the lost from China and casualties of more than 35 million during WWII
• President took seven of politburo for exhibition

Historical Narratives of Imperialism by Asia In particular Japan

Japanese and chinese massacres are not over China and relation is strained by a comfort with Korea. War crimes still have trust issues. Those who are not happy with Japan or Korea has some tension. The defeat made Japan for apologies with people economic victims Japan are now getting mellow and not less to be economic is the result China believe all their subordination Is an is the same, all the above mention is affect domestic policy and some of Pakistan

There now the problem is that no has been a way to explain to Japan apologetic side And violations not from our side, violations not from our western people. The way it is

Japan and Korea cannot get to terms with trauma, to that of the future. This leads to Ethnocenterism and Nationalism with the concept of humiliation is something which constantly there is no trust.

Pacifism

Japan took the policy of pacifist Constitution after the European model Did not increase despite threats Korea, Japan and China

Relations in Asia

Embedded western approach towards it. They took it from Aberystwyth And practices are western. Sovereignty is where it comes and spread it around American stamp is western

That that there is not the understanding there from other countries

Traditional Standard and What Problems come with this with IR

It does not capture a way west of IR The practices don't even India Just about nation when it is not Why study how civilizations what should be. And there is really no need to start it with best follow where the hierarchy empire were all around and what alternative could be taken