The Historical Development of Cells

Historical Development

• Robert Hooke observed cells in 1665
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek observed cells in 1678
• Cell theory was developed by Schleiden and Schwann (1838-1839)
• "Omnis cellula e cellula" (all cells come from cells) was postulated by Rudolf Virchow in 1852
• "Omnis nucleus e nucleo" (all nuclei come from nuclei) was postulated by Walther Flemming in 1860
• 20th century saw focus expand to biochemistry, cytogenetics, cytophysiology, molecular biology, and cellular ecology

Microscopy Types

• Light microscope uses a mechanical part (stand, holder, tube) and an optical part (ocular, objective, condenser)
• Phase contrast does not need staining, cells can be studied while alive
• Interference microscope assesses surface properties of cells and biological objects
• Fluorescence microscope visualises naturally occurring fluorescent molecules like neurotransmitters and vitamin A
• Polarizing microscope is designed for specimens visible by their anisotropic qualities, recognising structures with oriented molecules, uses 2 filters (polarizer and analyzer)
• Electron microscope (EM) uses electron beams, high resolution due to short wavelength
• Transmission EM (TEM) has 3nm resolution, up to 400,000x magnifications
• Scanning EM (SEM) similar to TEM but the electron beam is focused and doesn't pass through the specimen

Cytological exam principles

• Formalin fixes the tissue (inactivates enzymes)
• Alcohol dehydrates sample
• Paraffin/wax for embedding
• Microtome sectioning
• Hematoxylin and eosin (H and E) staining (basic and acidic dye)

Histochemistry

• Used to demonstrate carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
• PAS reaction demonstrates glycogen, glycoproteins, & glycosaminoglycans
• Lipid soluble dyes demonstrate lipids like Sudan 3 (orange), Sudan B (black), Sudan 4 (red)
• Protein demonstration uses elastin, orcein, amino acids, immunocytochemistry, chemical groups, paraldehyde-fuschin, solubility, and isoelectric point.
• Nucleic acid demonstration is based on basophilia, with DNA using Feulgen reaction and RNA using method of brachet (methyl green pyronin)

Enzyme Histochemistry

• Reactivity of enzymes produces visible products
• Fresh, unfixed cryostat tissue is used
• Optimum pH of enzyme is used
• Useful enzymes are phosphatases and peroxidases
• Gomori's method is an example

Immunohistochemistry

• Based on antigen-antibody reaction
• Direct: fluorescent/gold binds to antigen on tissue
• Indirect: secondary antibody is how mRNA sequences are found w/ in situ hybridization

Cell Culture

• Living cells/tissues maintained/studied outside the body
• Cells in organism are bathed in fluid for survival/growth
• Medical applications include metabolism study, developing new drugs, studying intracellular parasites, vaccine creation, cytogenetic studies, human genetic disorders, and gene/cell engineering.
• Paraffin technique steps: remove/biopsy, fix, rinse, dehydrate, clear, infiltrate, embed, section, stain, and mount.

Cell Fractionation

• Separates cell components while preserving function
• Isolation of cell constituents by differential centrifugation

Autoradiography

• Localizes radioactive tissues using radiation effects on photographic emulsions
• A radioactive precursor in tissue shows preparation to divide and replicating DNA
• Indicates radioactive protein migration
• X-ray crystallography determines arrangement of atoms in a crystal
• It solves crystal structures of proteins, cholesterol, vitamin B12, haemoglobin, and myoglobin.

Cell Makeup

• Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are two types of cells
• Cell is life's basic structural and functional unit
• Cell is the human body's building block
• Major cell abilities are reproduction, retaining contents, adaptation, and energy use

Prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes contains bacteria and archaea
• Prokaryotes are 1–10 μm in size
• Circular DNA, no cytoskeleton
• RNA/Protein share compartment
• Chromosomes attach to plasma membrane
• Prokaryotes are mainly unicellular

Eukaryotes

• Eukaryotes are multi-cellular
• Eukaryotes are 5-100 μm in size
• Linear DNA that is non-coding
• RNA processed in nucleus
• A Cytoskeleton of protein filaments
• Chromosomes use spindle apparatus

Eukaryotic cell

• Size varies from 5-200µm
• May be colourless or pigmented
• Cells are spherical, cuboidal or spindle shape with specialized organelles and cytoplasm
• Diameter size varies
  • Small cells up to 10µm
  • Medium cells 10–20 µm
  • Large cells greater than 20μm
• Its parts are the nucleus, cytosol, macromolecules, organelles consisting of
  • Proteins
  • Transfers RNA
  • Messenger RNA
  • Ribosomal RNA
  • Carbohydrates all in 70% volume

Cell Chemistry

• Essential elements are macroelements (98–99%), microelements and Water 70–80%
• Organic and inorganic molecules include ions and bonded molecules
• Carbohydrates include
  • Polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
  • Pentoses
  • Hexoses
• Lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• Functions as blood group antigenicit, adhesion, and recognition
• They are receptors for hormones ions and ligand

Chemical elements

• Lipids contain fatty acids and alcohol groups
• Proteins determine the shape and structure of the cell
• The functional classification are for enzymes, structural proteins and hormones
• Functional classifications include structural proteins, transport proteins, storage proteins, defense proteins, and contractile proteins
• Protein structures include a sequence called amino acids
• Nucleic acids and DNA are ribosomal RNA
• RNA: Messenger, ribosomal and transfer.

Cell membranes

• Cell membranes thickness size is 7-10nm only visible with a microscope and is asymmetrical
• The function of the cell membrane serves as a connection and barrier used for transferring information
• Permeability regulates waste and ions
• Composition is cholesterol insertion at varying densities that modulate fluidity components
• Proteins also maintain with hydrophobic molecules contributing to delicate glycoalyx
• Molecules of glycoproteins provide protein protection, the external surface that gives a lot of moeties that restricts diffusion
• Glycocalyx: carbohydrate moieties/glycoproteins project from external surface of plasma
• Peripheral proteins: membrane surface protein

Glycocalyx

• Glycocalyx is PAS positive up to 100 nm thick
• Composition is of the glycoprotein and glycolipids
• The membrane are proteins that contain transmebrane proteins
• Protruding membranes contain proteins and fluids
• Freeze fracture is for proteins adjacent to cytoplasm
• Function is defense, absorption, and cell adhesion and recognition,
• Lipid layers contain trans-membrane and firmly embedded proteins

Cell memebrane proteins

• Cell membrane proteins synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulumn
• Golgi apparatus completes their transfter into the vesticles in the cell surface
• Enzymes catalyze extra/intracelluar reactions
• Alkaline phosphatase + digestive enzymes + nucleoditase 5
• Junction between calls have proteins families + superimmnoglobulin
• Receptors reconginze ligands + ions and antibodies
• Channels transfer watet and ions
• Vescular transport goes into and out of the cells.
• Endocytosis transports though vesicles
• 3 types are the active transport such as endocytosis folding for enclosed material
  • phogocytosis
  • Pinocytosis
  • fluid phase endocytosis -RME

Cell signal

• Exocytosis then removes the extra- inter material through cyctosolic Calcium
• The signal releases constitutive recreation
• Regulated recreation releases digestive enzymes through pancreas in response stimuli
• Cells co ordinate through receptors
• Signals have different routes

Structure of the cell

• Signal molecules in Synaptic signalling is a type of paracrine interaction that controls adjacent synapses
• Autocrine cell are signal receptors on the same molecules.
• Endocrine cell receptors are cell surfaces
• Hydrophilic signalling Molecules are small in surface
• Types are; -G - Linked receptors. -Ion channelled receptors. -Receptors enzymes

4 Stages of cell cycle control

• Overall Regulation = Cyclins,
• Cell present affect different cell phases by activating -Kinases
• Activated CDK.
• Specific protein CDK

Inhibitors

• Mitosis takes < 60 minutes.
• G1 gap takes 5 to 10 hours
• S gap takes 6 to 8 hours
• G2 gap takes 2 t0 5 hours
• Cell division is for Mitosis M phase = Amitosis
• Parent cells divides that produce new daughter cells during a process controlled at several checkpoints. -Prophase in 10 to 60 min.
  • nucleolus disappears -metaphase is a spindle with kineticore 10 to 20 min -Anaphase has 5- 8 min
• Telophase is 2 sets chromosomes to build new state. 20/ 30MINS
• Cytokenisis as a belt like ring that produces clevage.
• Endomitosis is chromosome replica

Melosis features

• Prophase in chromosomes
• Metaphase I /1 Homoglobins Separate.

Cell Reactivity

• Cell reactance id irritibailitt and excitaition
• cell movement is to go to chemicals types;
• chemo taxi
• proto taxi
• reao Taxi
• amboid dialation -Mytoliia
• Muscle cantricion is done by actin differentiation is proliferation of cells. Cell differentiation or specialization have specific function

Cell Death of Apotosis:

• Necrosis id external of the cell
• Apotosis ia a controlled cellular function

Histology classification of tissues

• Tissues are 4.

1. epethial. 2 connective
2. Mascular four are regeneration as physiological

Epithelial Tissue:

• Tissue and the hollow region of organs;
• Protection and secreation for function
• Shapes; is columnar squamous or epticuboial
• Is also in blood vessels. Avascular
• Polar in region and has a lumen.

Covering cell in Epathilia

-Squamous for vessels

• Ephithila for lining –Visible nuecli cuboidal Resembles spherical nuclear and has protection for exocrine and secretion function
• found as glands
• Columner
• elongated nuclei, secretion
• pseudostratified as one layer with basement. Transaltioal eolithilia to form liner.
• Urotheiloum lines unitary tra
• Shape rounds.

Ephathilia and Layers

• Squamous Keratin layer epidermis —Non K surface lines, and lines what
• Columnnar +Rare
• columnnAR+ conjunctiva

Layers of skin

• Basale strata –Stratatum
• grandsa statrum
• Lucid and core

3 layer is exocrome (cell secreetion)

• Reticanular

• They connect

• Epithelium

• Structure is of cells by branches that are tubular are rounded by multi lubular.

• secretion is the 3 group is meocrine secretion.

   -Apocrine products.
   -Horcne
  

  Accumulate and release is product as debris: Histology contd

Exocrine glands layers

• Exocrine glands: have surface connection
• Conmrection is to connect glands w/ a epithelium
• Classified into shapes; simple acinar tubular and composed
• secretion is seruous that make matris

• accinuces is to create centers -Mucosus is Spherical Mixed glands/acinar, and Myoethliluc

• Gland cells most are slibvary types
• Merociian are most common is secretion with the apocrien

Glanduler cell properties:

• Conneaction sureface
• Secrete from direct hormes
• Types; -cell cord -pituitary -parathryoiud -Adrenal type/thymous -cell vessel thyriod.

Connectives tissue features

• Contraction of extraxcellulat matris and necer found
• Adatiive ad regenerayice
• Func is for bond and for tissue and protection+ and immulogucal properties
• classifcation

Types;

• Connect and lose
• Bundle Coligen
• Dense and resist the stress+ connect.
• Special tissue bone +cardlidge Emeryonic tissue +

Cellularity + function (conective portion)

• Retular and fibre calloagen 3 with cell adhesion
• Multi adhesion- glyco protein- and fibres.
• Alllouch to cell . The matrix in trans parent and the main
• Compoent is GAG and it binds to water-
• Proteogllucins. And hualauric acid + helps with regulaltion and filbrote.

Main Cellularity:

• Fibrous to build.

• syntheisese extretulcat

• Defenxe cells Macrophage –phagtic
• oval kidney shape =lyzomes = mast -Anti COAGulants + histamine + Protrase Plasma cells + Blood cell
• Nutrive

Fibres collagens

Most is for 3 body types -Low and easy

1. Forms

3 collagen fibre is is type I AND Fibsils-+ for shaths and sheet type IV and VII

Histogeins

Is cell division . And for forming for the cell membrane.

Cartage

Is to help  is found  in the following

Types is found in the following Founcd in the 3 cartlidge / Elastic fibre or hylernic

Tissue of Body

Types;

• Bone

• Support organs.

• Bone is a connective tissue type 5 -Osteoblast +Oestites -OSTOBLASTS - multicie OSTROCLASS

• Bone matrix types

• Collagen type 1

• Cartilage + bone .

• Cellular of Oganiac cells Hydrophite /phosophis

• Calcium , carbonate *Fluonide

Bones by tissue

• primary is woven
• secundary iscompact 80/ Cansillusous

Blood supply

Is harvested with vessels and cells that cannalclui and the outer membrane

Cartlagae of the 3 regions . . *Red rest 11/Prolifilc 21Hypretrothic. 13calcifed.

Bone

-Uses cells to singal during re pairing the bone with hemorrgae and callous formations

Blood

Cell are suspeemded in special tyssue and connec tissue for Types ( ERLThio. Lukoes + thrombo. Function trasport remove toix and balance . And Clott and temp Plasma the water,proteins. elates and gasses

PROTEINS + albumin , fibrogen + Compliemt +

Antibiotics

• Glycrproetine of G family Producess and bponds to 0Lasm and makes chains

5 Antibodies

_G

_A

_M

_E

• D +Erythotes are Terminallly differenatice Lack and fill cells Shale is bi concave make a space surface
• 472
• Lipis Carb and Protiend
• Types:
• Combined for oxygen and for CO . LIfespsn Is 190 .

The 3 types the

1.Granolytces ( types of cells the Neuthills. Eishills+ basophills has multi and the cytoplasm / and types: 3

• Lymph ( small media to large = -cells t . a and nature of cells

Devlpment of monocytes

Cells: is 1111 + function as lyzyms The cells are agriotes and make the proteasomes

Thromboytes

Are platelet types .

• And have all the funciotn for platelet and clots: -Membrane with adhesion
• Alpha Granloles
• Function + —Primaary and Clot Is to make and attarcjt

The orin go to cell.

Himoipeies + cells

• Erythrocytes —Theomcytes 4 is liner cells

100/85 Hemopoetics

• Hiempoetic and cell the is . liner

• Bone cart + cells help grow

• Cell and • -Mytolliner

• The cells to from liner, Lmphoyd

Reagulles Hiesmepeitosys

Types .Granulo + types of macrophages

• Erythoiding of 0o And the gnes

Muscle

• The tissure has proetienm

• Cell all . the desmalgion from + to type , and function. And contraction + or mylin and mylin And in smooth ,.

Histology

• 81
• Skel tissue the
• Is abundant. Contraction -
• The 4 point alls. Has cell of hyertrophy that function by.

• And .

Organizaitions:

Skelatal muse

Muscles in details.

• Filiment of and actins / bands

42 the conttaciot.

• Polarizarotn • Fast with muscle is contrioty
• • cardiac muscle and cardiac

Types to look too.

• Mythotes -Contariont for heart . They help pump blood. -Serves hormones
• The tissue of caridacs

Nerve tissuse charrterristiics

And has netwrok of celles as support: has a fuincon to setmilar and control Prperties

• Irratibilty -Coduccuticy Divisition
• CNS spinal or brain -preropelth and nerves on duse 3rd
• Types Neurons types are ,Axon the cells . the body, dendrites

TYPES_ BI POP . MULTI /UNoPOLOR+ Ananoiac Has cell to support Axons for brain and has axon as mylin to supproet + Axolema and synapse to help transfeer cells

Cell Properties

Axilal and collatreal are for for generating to create cells /sinal. Organellers cell and the retro and help

• Myllin in Fibre, to provide in all nerve to cell functipons the shwarm to the