The Five Pillars of Islam

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Questions and Answers

How do the Five Pillars of Islam function within the Muslim faith?

  • They serve as suggestions for spiritual growth, adaptable to individual preferences and circumstances.
  • They act as rigid laws dictating every aspect of a Muslim's life, leaving no room for personal interpretation.
  • They provide a foundational framework of duties and practices, acting as identifying characteristics of a Muslim, regardless of sect or location. (correct)
  • They primarily focus on political and social reforms, aiming to establish a unified Islamic state with strict regulations.

During Ramadan, practicing Muslims abstain from food and drink from dawn until sunset. What is the primary purpose of this practice?

  • To demonstrate physical strength and endurance, proving their commitment to Islam through hardship.
  • To adhere to a cultural tradition passed down through generations, maintaining social cohesion within the community.
  • To encourage self-discipline, empathy for the less fortunate, and spiritual growth. (correct)
  • To improve their physical health by detoxifying the body and reducing calorie intake.

Zakat, or almsgiving, is an important pillar of Islam. How does it aim to impact society?

  • It seeks to reduce economic inequality by redistributing wealth to those in need. (correct)
  • It serves as a mandatory tax imposed by Islamic governments to fund public services.
  • Its primary goal is to fund the construction of mosques and religious schools.
  • It provides a means for the wealthy to gain social status and recognition within the Muslim community.

What does the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca primarily symbolize for Muslims?

<p>Unity among Muslims worldwide and devotion to God, achieved through shared rituals and a journey to a sacred site. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Shahada in Islam?

<p>It is a declaration of faith, affirming belief in one God (Allah) and Muhammad as his prophet. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the text describe the relationship between Islam and culture?

<p>Islam, like other faiths, evolves and adapts in response to diverse cultural and historical contexts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does daily Salah (prayer) impact the lives of Muslims?

<p>It encourages a consistent and disciplined approach to spiritual practice throughout the day. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Islam provides guidance for various aspects of life. Which domains are directly addressed?

<p>Guidelines cover family life, individual behavior, business, social interactions, dress, and diet. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central pillar around which all other pillars of Islam revolve?

<p>Shahadah (Witness to the Faith) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT explicitly mentioned as an element of Islam's faith (Iman) subsumed under the Shahadah?

<p>Belief in performing good deeds to earn salvation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the ritual washing (ablution) before Salah?

<p>To symbolically restore the believer to original purity and balance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions is performed during a Rakah?

<p>Bowing from the hips with hands on knees (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Ramadan in Islam?

<p>It is a period of fasting and spiritual renewal (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'Night of Power' during Ramadan commemorate?

<p>The first revelations to Muhammad (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Takbir, recited during Salah?

<p>A declaration of God's greatness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of facing the Qibla during Salah?

<p>It directs prayers towards the holy city of Mecca (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the practice of Zakat emphasize?

<p>Communal responsibility and charity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Ramadan affect Muslims' daily lives?

<p>It involves abstaining from food and drink from dawn till dusk (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the passage, what is the role of prophets in Islam?

<p>To serve as spokespersons of God and examples to follow (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is the significance of the Shahadah for someone who wishes to convert to Islam?

<p>It is sufficient for conversion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that the Quran does NOT mention prayers of intercession because:

<p>God does not require from any person what is beyond his or her power. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of personal and informal prayer (dua) in Islam?

<p>It is a time for individual petition, praise, thanks or even begging from God. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why Ramadan is considered a 'holy time' each year?

<p>Because it was in the last ten days of Ramadan that Muhammad experienced his 'Night of Power' and first received revelations from Allah which were to become the Quran. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the purpose of fasting during Ramadan?

<p>To purify oneself from sins and strengthen one's connection with God through abstinence and sacrifice. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Zakat contribute to the establishment of an equitable society in Islam?

<p>By redistributing wealth from those who have to those in need through a mandatory annual tax. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Hajj pilgrimage in the life of a Muslim?

<p>It is a symbolic return to the roots of Islam and a renewal of faith through re-enacting historical events. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the study of pre-Islamic Arabia challenging for historians?

<p>Because the available evidence is limited and fragmented, consisting of archaeological remains, oral traditions, and Islamic scholarship. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Bedouin's lifestyle in the Arabian Desert influence the development of their culture?

<p>The need for survival in a harsh environment fostered a tightly-knit culture centered around family units and tribal affiliations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary function of Bedouin tents, and how were they adapted to the desert environment?

<p>Temporary and transportable shelters constructed from woven materials that provide insulation and ventilation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did kinship play in the social structure of Bedouin society?

<p>Kinship served as the foundation for social organization, with families forming clans and clans uniting to form tribes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the practice of transhumance shape the Bedouin's relationship with the desert environment?

<p>It fostered a deep understanding of seasonal changes and the distribution of resources, enabling sustainable use of the land. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Zakat differ from regular charitable donations in Islam?

<p>Zakat is a fixed percentage of one's savings, while charitable donations can vary in amount and purpose. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the division of a Bedouin tent into two sections (masjid and mahamara)?

<p>It provides separate spaces for men and women, reflecting traditional gender roles and responsibilities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered invalid regarding the Hajj pilgrimage?

<p>Going into debt to finance the pilgrimage. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would you describe the relationship of an individual with their clan (qawm) in Bedouin culture?

<p>Individuals were born into and identified strongly with their clan, viewing their tent and clan as interconnected. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most accurate description of 'Pre-Islamic Arabia'?

<p>It is a term used to refer to the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam, but with limited and fragmentary evidence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Bedouin tents provide shelter according to the weather of the desert?

<p>They were constructed from woven materials that expand to keep water out and protect them from the sun. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are the concepts of Prayer, Fasting, and Almsgiving related?

<p>Prayer carries us half-way to God; fasting brings us to the door of His praises; almsgiving·procures for us admission. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evidence suggests that the Bedouin lifestyle was not entirely isolated from other communities?

<p>Bedouins engaged in trade with other cultures for goods they could not produce themselves. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary function of poetry and language games within Bedouin culture, and what does this suggest about their values?

<p>To serve as a preeminent form of artistic expression and cultural preservation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did a Bedouin's understanding of astronomy and mathematics contribute to their survival in the desert?

<p>They depended on it to chart migratory routes and find water sources. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the introduction of horses impact Bedouin society and its interaction with neighboring groups?

<p>It facilitated raiding and increased conflict with settled communities and other Bedouins. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What social consequences did individuals who could not meet the physical or social expectations of Bedouin society face?

<p>They were often exiled and became marginalized in urban centers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the increasing integration of Bedouin culture with outside empires affect the prevalence and nature of conflict within Bedouin society?

<p>It led to more sophisticated weapons and the integration of raiding into rituals, increasing deaths and blood feuds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Bedouin attitude toward settled, urban civilizations?

<p>A mixture of contempt and envy, viewing urban life as exotic yet degenerate. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the Bedouin practice of ghazw, what factors contributed to its transformation from an occasional activity to a more ingrained aspect of Bedouin culture?

<p>Increasing enmeshment with outside empires, access to better weapons, and integration into masculinity rituals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the scarcity of water influence various aspects of Bedouin life, from daily practices to conflict?

<p>It necessitated careful rationing, influenced migratory routes, and sometimes led to wars over access to water sources. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the provided text, what inference can be made about the long-term sustainability of the Bedouin lifestyle?

<p>The Bedouin lifestyle was gradually becoming less sustainable due to increasing integration with outside cultures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the Bedouin perspective on raiding (ghazw), how would they likely justify such actions, according to al-Kutami?

<p>Raiding was a necessary aspect of survival and a means to assert dominance, even against one’s own kin if needed. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Besides the goat-skin bag, what other methods did Bedouins use to locate water sources as a way of survival in the desert?

<p>Turning over half-buried stones at sunrise, observing dew on desert grass, digging where sand dunes meet the sea. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the role of tribal elders in Bedouin society during the time leading up to Mohammad’s birth?

<p>They felt that Bedouin culture was under threat. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the dangers listed for the Bedouin, besides thirst, select the answer containing ONLY dangers that a Bedouin might encounter.

<p>Sudden storms, Biological threats, Wars over scarce resources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the consequence of the increase in deaths resulting from the increase in ghazw?

<p>The only acceptable response on the part of the clan or tribe that was injured was to declare a Blood Feud on the other clan or tribe. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary objective of a blood feud in Bedouin society?

<p>To identify and retaliate against the perpetrator of a wrong, typically through a designated member of the wronged party. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Bedouin society, what was the purpose of plural marriage (marriage to multiple wives) as it emerged?

<p>To offer protection, support, and a family structure for widows and orphaned daughters, often without a sexual component. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Quraysh tribes contribute to Mecca's growth in prominence?

<p>By seizing control of Mecca in the 5th century and becoming adept merchants, integrating the city into the lucrative spice trade. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the integration of the Arabian Peninsula with the broader world have on Bedouin culture by the 6th century CE?

<p>It disrupted Bedouin culture due to increased awareness of powerful civilizations and recruitment as mercenaries in imperial wars.. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Apart from violent reprisals, what alternatives were there to resolve conflicts stemming from blood feuds?

<p>Commuting the offense into blood money or exchanging tribe members to compensate the injured party. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did Mecca become the primary binding force in Arabia during the late 6th century?

<p>Mecca's trade connections, along with the decline of other regional powers, allowed it to unite various client tribes economically. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the status of widows, orphans and the maimed who could not be integrated into plural marriage?

<p>They were shunned from Bedouin society and were forced to beg on the streets of cities.. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What crucial role did camels play in Mecca's economic prosperity during the 6th century?

<p>Camels facilitated trade through caravans, integrating goods from the local nomadic tribes such as leather and metals and transporting them to other cities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What led to traders diverting from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes through Mecca?

<p>Battles elsewhere increased piracy on the Red Sea, making overland routes through Mecca more secure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Bedouin society attempt to mitigate the negative consequences of blood feuds?

<p>By adopting plural marriage to provide social welfare for widows and orphans resulting from the violence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did the Sasanian Empire pose a threat to the trade routes that ran through the Persian Gulf, contributing to Mecca's rise as a trading center?

<p>The Sasanian Empire engaged in exploitations that disrupted trade along the Persian Gulf. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor primarily contributed to the gender imbalance within Bedouin society?

<p>The frequent deaths of men resulting from cycles of violence and retaliation in blood feuds. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what ways did Mecca secure safe passage for trade caravans moving between different regions?

<p>By signing treaties with both the Byzantines and the Bedouins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the attitude of Bedouin tribesmen toward the Roman and Persian Empires?

<p>Bedouins regarded Roman and Persian societies as a threat to their existence, and expressed disdain for what they saw as decadent lifestyles. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might a Bedouin tribe do if a member caused too much trouble?

<p>Exile the member to the wasteland where he may not survive. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary characteristic of the Umayyad Caliphate's expansion?

<p>Rapid territorial growth extending across three continents. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following challenges significantly contributed to the weakening of the Umayyad Caliphate?

<p>Growing tensions over legitimacy and governance, including taxation policies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why was the location of the Umayyad capital moved from Mecca to Damascus?

<p>To facilitate the management of the expanding empire. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Umayyads address the administrative needs of their expanding, multi-ethnic empire?

<p>They relied on local elites, regardless of their faith, to govern. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the principal source of revenue that the Umayyads initially relied upon to fund their empire?

<p>Taxes (jizya) paid by non-Muslims (dhimmi). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What event led to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate?

<p>The defeat of Ali's forces by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary factor that led to the Umayyads requesting that all Muslims pay a land tax?

<p>The conversion of many dhimmi to Islam reduced the tax revenue. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What regions were incorporated into the Muslim world under the Umayyads?

<p>The Iberian Peninsula, the Maghreb, and Transoxiana. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguished the Cordoba Caliphate from the rest of the Umayyad Dynasty?

<p>Its emphasis on peaceful diplomacy, religious tolerance, and cultural flourishing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group primarily challenged the Umayyads' legitimacy based on their lineage?

<p>Those who believed only Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, could rightfully rule. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant long-term consequence of the Umayyad Caliphate relying on non-Muslim local elites for governance?

<p>A perception among some Muslims that non-Muslims were unfairly advantaged. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the First Fitna?

<p>A Muslim civil war that disrupted the unity of the faith. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the expansion of the Islamic Caliphate under the Umayyads affect the status of the Arabic language?

<p>Arabic became the language of the court and formal administration. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Around what modern-day country was the Umayyad Caliphate centered?

<p>Syria (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key impact of the Umayyad dynasty being 'born out of' the First Fitna?

<p>It created lasting tensions and questions regarding the legitimacy of their rule. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did literacy challenge traditional Bedouin culture?

<p>It allowed for the preservation of knowledge but was viewed with suspicion as inauthentic compared to oral performance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of urban life was most alien to traditional Bedouin culture?

<p>The concept of living among strangers without established kinship ties or tribal affiliations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the tribe of Quraysh administer justice in Mecca?

<p>By utilizing a tribal system where disputes were resolved by clan leaders within the Quraysh tribe. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group in Meccan society was least likely to benefit from the tribal mechanisms of justice?

<p>Marginalized individuals such as the banished, opportunists, aliens, and the abject. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Ka'ba in pre-Islamic Mecca?

<p>It was a site of pagan religious pilgrimage attracting people from various tribes and regions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the influx of pilgrims impact Mecca's social and economic dynamics?

<p>Pilgrims created economic opportunities for merchants, innkeepers, and others, while remaining socially separate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contradiction characterized Meccan society in the pre-Islamic era?

<p>The blending of tribal customs with a rapidly modernizing commercial environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did economic changes in Mecca affect the traditional Bedouin values of equality and communal support?

<p>The accumulation of wealth threatened these values as disparities grew between the rich and the poor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What transformative effect did Muhammad have on the Arabian Peninsula, according to the text?

<p>He united disparate tribes under a new Muslim identity, laying the foundation for a legal system and ending blood feuds. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main distinction between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims regarding the succession after Muhammad's death?

<p>Sunni Muslims believe Abu Bakr was the rightful successor, while Shi'a Muslims believe Ali should have been the successor. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Abu Bakr's primary objective as the first caliph after Muhammad's death?

<p>To preserve the unity of the Islamic community by suppressing tribal rebellions and solidifying Islamic authority. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Rashidun Caliphate contribute to shaping the course of world history?

<p>By initiating military conquests that led to the spread of Islam across vast territories. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Before Muhammad, what was the primary focus of the tribes in the Arabian Peninsula?

<p>Engaging in internal political conflicts and rivalries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Prophet Muhammad change the identity of Arab Berbers?

<p>By creating a new identity for them as Muslims, transcending tribal affiliations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What legal framework emerged as a result of Muhammad's efforts to unify the tribes?

<p>A comprehensive legal system known as Sharia that provided a basis for resolving disputes peacefully. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Islam's emphasis on community obligation impact the Berber society?

<p>It fostered unity and redirected energies away from internal violence towards collective goals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary motivation for many recent Berber converts to embrace Islam?

<p>Observing Islam's positive impact on the community and its ability to achieve success. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the immediate consequence of Muhammad's unexpected death in 632 CE?

<p>Disagreements and conflicts among his followers regarding his rightful successor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Caliph Abu Bakr's justification for launching military campaigns against Arabian tribes after Muhammad's death?

<p>To maintain the unity and cohesion of the Islamic community (Ummah). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Rashidun Caliphate's policies in conquered territories affect the local populations?

<p>They offered greater religious freedom to Jews and some Christians and lowered taxes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental difference between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims regarding the selection of Muhammad's successor?

<p>Sunnis believe the successor should be elected or chosen by community consensus, while Shi'as believe the successor should be a direct descendant of Muhammad appointed by God. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the significance of the First Fitna in Islamic history?

<p>It represented the first major internal conflict and civil war within the Islamic community. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Muawiyah change the nature of the caliphate after the assassination of Ali?

<p>He transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, founding the Umayyad dynasty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial action did Abu Bakr take to consolidate the Islamic state after being appointed caliph?

<p>He quelled internal rebellions by Arabian tribes who rejected Islam or withheld alms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the rapid expansion of Islam following Muhammad's death impact existing political structures in conquered territories?

<p>It resulted in a blending of Islamic principles with existing administrative practices, often granting local autonomy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might recent converts to Islam have been particularly motivated to participate in wars of expansion?

<p>To claim land, fame, and contribute to the success of the new faith. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the nomination of Abu Bakr by Umar ibn al-Khattab and his subsequent confirmation as caliph suggest about the early caliphate's leadership selection process?

<p>It demonstrates a process of community input and consensus-based decision-making. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Islam influence the resolution of conflicts within Berber communities prior to the expansion?

<p>By providing a framework to redirect violence to external entities rather than internal feuds. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central argument presented regarding the objectification of women in contemporary society?

<p>Women are predominantly judged based on their physical appearance, diminishing their intrinsic value. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What administrative strategies contributed to the stability of new Islamic territories under leaders such as the Rashidun Caliphate?

<p>Granting religious freedom and local autonomy, which helped to assimilate the local people with the new rule. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors, besides religious conviction, likely motivated the Berber people to convert to Islam?

<p>Desire for political unification, cessation of internal conflicts, and societal benefits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the author characterize the impact of societal expectations on female self-perception?

<p>They can lead to destructive behaviors and a distorted sense of self-worth among women and young girls. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the author imply about the fashion industry and other institutions in relation to women?

<p>They contribute to the objectification and exploitation of women for profit and societal gain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the author frame her personal choice of wearing the hijab?

<p>As an expression of personal liberation and control over her own identity and image. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What underlying message about female empowerment does the author convey?

<p>Empowerment involves making conscious choices that prioritize personal values and self-respect over societal pressures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What assumption does the author challenge regarding women who choose to cover themselves?

<p>That they are necessarily oppressed, subservient, or lacking in personal agency. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the author connect the concept of physical appearance to broader societal values?

<p>By suggesting that modern society places so much emphasis on looks, there is little regard for the value of the individual. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied about the 'beauty myth' and its perpetuation in media?

<p>It promotes unrealistic and unattainable standards of beauty that can harm women's self-esteem. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of contrasting the author's experience with stereotypical views of women who wear hijab?

<p>To present a nuanced perspective on the choices women make regarding modesty and self-expression. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the author's intent when she asks, 'What kind of depth can there be in a world like this?'

<p>To draw attention to the superficiality and lack of substance in a society obsessed with appearances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary challenge to the Umayyad dynasty's legitimacy as time passed?

<p>The loss of connection to the Prophet Muhammad due to the death of early believers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did the Umayyad Caliphate decide to expand aggressively into regions like Spain and Central Asia?

<p>To maintain legitimacy through victories and distribute spoils of war. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical event marked a turning point in the Umayyad Caliphate's expansionist policy?

<p>The failure to capture Byzantium. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the halt in expansion impact the internal dynamics of the Umayyad Caliphate?

<p>It intensified factional, tribal, and regional conflicts within the Caliphate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What argument did the Abbasids use to justify their overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate?

<p>The Umayyads had become corrupted by foreign customs and luxurious lifestyles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symbolic act did the Abbasids commit to demonstrate their rejection of the Umayyad dynasty?

<p>They desecrated the tombs of the Umayyad rulers, except for Umar II. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Abd al-Rahman I manage to continue Umayyad rule after the Abbasid takeover?

<p>By establishing a new Umayyad kingdom in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the reaction of some women in South Arabia upon hearing of the Prophet Muhammad's death?

<p>They celebrated by singing, dancing, and applying henna. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did Caliph Abu Bakr respond so harshly to the women celebrating Muhammad's death?

<p>He considered their actions a challenge to the Prophet's authority and disruptive to the new order. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the episode involving the women celebrating the Prophet's death suggest about the early Islamic period?

<p>There was resistance to the new Islamic order, potentially including strong female opposition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What were the ridda wars that followed the death of Prophet Muhammad?

<p>Uprisings caused by tribes refusing to acknowledge Abu Bakr's succession. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the behavior of the women celebrating the Prophet's death contrast with the expectations for women in the emerging Islamic society?

<p>Their actions defied prescriptions of obedience, piety, and domesticity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the source suggest about the role of women in the transition from pre-Islamic to Islamic society?

<p>Women's experiences were diverse, with some embracing and others resisting the new order. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the Umayyad's building of mosques, what can be inferred about their priorities?

<p>They wanted to reinforce their legitimacy and piety. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main cause of the internal conflict within the Umayyad Caliphate?

<p>The end of expansion. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defining imperative transformed Arab society, according to the Islamic metanarrative?

<p>Commanding right conduct and forbidding wrong. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the principal danger posed by groups such as the Qaramita within the context of early Islamic society?

<p>Their alternative beliefs threatened the established Muslim creed. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided content, what is the function of gender-related and sexual imagery in Islamic history?

<p>To define and reinforce the new Islamic center against perceived deviations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the broader meaning of 'hijab' beyond a scarf or dress code?

<p>Modest dressing and behavior that respects moral boundaries between unrelated men and women. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these options accurately describes the attitude towards the pre-Islamic past following the rise of Islam?

<p>Gratitude for new order paired with acknowledgement of past wrongs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Quran's guidance to believing men regarding interaction with women?

<p>Men should lower their gaze and be modest. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the banning of the hijab in some countries suggest about the role of religious symbols in modern society?

<p>It reflects ongoing debates about religious freedom and cultural identity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the narratives of jahiliyya impact the construction of Islamic identity?

<p>By establishing a clear contrast to define what it meant to be Muslim. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do women who choose to wear hijab often view its impact on their relationship with societal expectations?

<p>It frees them from being valued solely for their physical appearance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What commonality exists in the early Islamic views of the jahiliyya, the Qaramita, and the Byzantines?

<p>They each represented a potential challenge to the integrity and character of the Muslim community. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is one reason why hijab has become a sign of Islamic consciousness in the last 30 years?

<p>A desire to be part of an Islamic revival, especially where the practice of Islam is discouraged. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception refuted by women who choose to wear hijab?

<p>It is universally imposed upon women against their will. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do Muslim women choose to wear the hijab, according to the content?

<p>To fulfill a religious obligation prescribed by God. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the verse 'There is no compulsion in religion' (2:256) in the context of hijab?

<p>It supports the idea that choosing to wear or not wear hijab should be a personal decision. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the anecdote regarding women in Hadramaut reverting to pre-Islamic behavior after the Prophet's death illustrate?

<p>The vulnerability of the early Muslim community to reverting to jahiliyya. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What challenge do women who wear hijab often face, highlighting it as a visible sign of Islam?

<p>Having to defend their decision to cover and their religion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did mainstream Islamic culture use the concept of jahiliyya?

<p>To construct itself as a religious and imperial center. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of pre-Islamic society does the term jahiliyya primarily emphasize?

<p>Its state of ignorance and moral corruption. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the literal meaning of the Arabic term 'hijab'?

<p>To veil, to cover, or to screen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Quran's guidance to women related to displaying adornment?

<p>Women are asked not to show off their adornment, except that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bodies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did concerns about reverting to jahiliyya shape early Islamic society?

<p>By fostering a strong emphasis on adherence to Islamic norms and values. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an accurate comparison of perspectives on hijab?

<p>Those who seek to ban hijab view it as a symbol of gender-based repression while women who choose to wear it view it as a personal decision and independent choice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the role of women in defining early Islamic identity, as reflected in the content?

<p>Anecdotes centering on women served as a means to define the boundaries of Islamic identity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is most accurate about the term 'hijab'?

<p>It is a term that encompasses modest dressing and modest behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What overarching theme connects the discussions of jahiliyya, the Qaramita, and the Byzantines?

<p>Each posed a challenge to what was framed as correct Islamic practice. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the author Sultana Yusufali describe her personal experience and perspective on wearing the hijab?

<p>As a fundamental aspect of female empowerment, freeing her from judgment based on appearance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most accurate interpretation of the global controversy surrounding the hijab?

<p>It embodies complex debates about religious expression, cultural norms, and individual freedom. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Quran's guidance about dealing with religious differences?

<p>The Quran highlights the freedom of religion, emphasizing that there is no compulsion in religion. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a reason women give for wearing hijab that relates to workplace dynamics?

<p>It minimizes sexual harassment by creating an aura of privacy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an accurate inference based on the experiences of women who choose to wear hijab?

<p>Women who choose to wear hijab often face animosity from Muslim and non-Muslim families and must defend their right to wear hijab. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Shahadah

The declaration of faith in Islam, affirming belief in Allah and Muhammad as his prophet.

Salah

Daily prayers performed five times a day at specific times: Fajr, Zuhr, Asr, Maghrib, and Isha.

Sawm

Fasting from dawn to sunset during Ramadan, abstaining from food, water, and sinful behavior.

Zakat

Giving a portion of one's wealth to the needy; a form of charity and wealth redistribution.

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Hajj

A pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, that every able-bodied Muslim should perform at least once in their lifetime.

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Five Pillars of Islam

Marks of a Muslim that are practiced by all Muslims of every sect everywhere in the world

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Fajr

Before Sunrise

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Zuhr

Early afternoon

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Tawhid

Belief in one God who alone is worthy of worship.

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Belief in Angels

Spiritual beings who do the will of God.

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Belief in Sacred Books

Includes Torah (Taurah) and Gospel (Injil), all inspired by God.

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Belief in Prophets

Examples to follow and spokesmen of God.

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Belief in the Day of Judgement

Accountability for one's actions in life.

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Adhan

A call to prayer proclaimed by a Muezzin.

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Ablution (Wudu)

Ceremonial washing before prayer, restoring purity.

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Qibla

Facing the Kaaba (in Mecca) during prayer.

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Takbir

Saying "Allahu Akbar" (God is the Greatest).

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Ramadan

Month when Muhammad received the first revelations.

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Sawm (Fasting)

Fasting from sunrise to sunset during Ramadan, abstaining from food, drink, and sensual pleasures.

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Zakat (Almsgiving)

Mandatory charitable giving, typically 2.5% of annual savings, to aid the poor and needy.

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Hajj (Pilgrimage)

A once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca, if physically and financially able.

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Pre-Islamic Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam in the 630s CE.

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Bedouins

Semi-nomadic Arab people inhabiting the Arabian deserts.

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Qawm (Clan)

A larger group formed when a family (hayy) maintained a large number of members.

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Bedouin Tents

Tents that are easily erected, dismantled, and transported.

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Masjid

The section of a Bedouin tent reserved for men and receiving guests.

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Mahamara

The section of a Bedouin tent for women, cooking, and receiving female guests.

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Fictive Kinship

Informal adoption process by which friendly families would claim fictive kinship to each other.

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Qabila (Tribe)

An association of clans claiming tribal status.

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Shaykhs

Oldest, most influential, and wisest members of tribes.

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Transhumance

Raising livestock and migrating from oasis to oasis for resources.

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"True" Bedouin Way of Life

A cultural image of nomadic, warrior people who practiced movement between oasis.

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Bedouin Diet Core

Staple foods of the Bedouin diet, supplemented by animal meat.

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Bedouin Trade

Bedouins always had contact with settled communities, trading for needed goods.

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Bedouin Ideal

A romanticized idea of a past, not always a lived reality.

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Bedouin Art Form

Poetry and language games as a form of art during travel and grazing.

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Desert Navigation

Essential skill involving mental mathematics and astronomy to find water sources.

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Desert Water Tricks

Turning over stones for dew, collecting dew from desert grass, finding water where dunes meet the sea.

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Wars of Necessity

Access to water, oases, and migratory lands leading to conflicts.

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Ghazw

Raids on settlements, caravans, or other Bedouins for wealth.

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Bedouin Outcasts

Those who could not meet the expectations of the Bedouin society were exiled.

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Bedouin Horse Culture

A culture changed profoundly when the horse was introduced to the Arabian peninsula.

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Ideal Raider

The skilled raider was seen as a pinnacle of masculinity.

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Blood Feud

Required response to deaths resulting from raids; a cycle of revenge.

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Bedouin View of Urban Life

The Bedouins viewed the urbanites as degenerate.

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Banat er rih

Horses were called "Daughters of the Wind"

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Ghazw Ritual

Rituals of masculinity involved ghazw

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Blood Money

Cash compensation paid to the injured party to resolve a blood feud.

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Plural Marriage (Bedouin Context)

A sociological response to gender imbalance where widows and orphans were 'married' for protection and support.

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Quraysh

Tribe in control of Mecca in the 5th century, known for trade.

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Mecca

City that became a prominent trading center, surpassing Petra and Palmyra.

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Local Nomadic Tribes

Nomadic people who brought goods to Mecca for trade.

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Treaties with Byzantines and Bedouins

Agreements for safe caravan passages negotiated by Meccans.

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Meccan Confederation

Loose alliance of tribes connected to Mecca

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Cosmopolitanism impact on Bedouin

The disruption of Bedouin culture due to increasing contact with the outside world

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Awareness of Empires

Awareness of wealthy and advanced civilizations like Rome (Byzantium) and Persia (Sassanid Empire)

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Mercenary Recruitment

Enlisting young Arabian men to fight wars for other empires.

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Urban Culture

A major challenge to traditional Bedouin society

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Muhammad's Tribe

The tribe of the Prophet Muhammad

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Muhammad's Profession

The profession of Muhammad before receiving revelations

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Sassanid Empire Exploitations

Conflicts exploited from a local empire

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Bedouin Oral Culture

Oral culture deeply committed to memorization and performance, transmitting culture through poetry and song.

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Cognitive Dissonance

The feeling of unease from holding incompatible beliefs together.

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Marginal Meccan Peoples

Those banished, opportunistic, alien, and abject individuals on the margins of Meccan society.

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The Ka'ba

A meteoric iron, a piece of the stars, that became a place of pagan religious pilgrimage.

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The Quraysh Tribe

The tribe in charge of Mecca who administered justice and gained wealth from religious pilgrims.

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Economic Inequality

Traders, merchants, and literate individuals amassing wealth in contrast to the growing urban poor.

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Ummah

The community of Muslims.

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Abu Bakr

Considered to be the proper successor to Muhammad after his death.

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Sharia

The legal system that emerged to settle differences peacefully among Muslims of different tribes.

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Muslim Identity

The new identity created for Arab Berbers through war and negotiation.

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Abu Bakr as Caliph

Friend of Muhammad, became the first caliph and ruler of the islamic community.

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Sunni Muslims

Muslims that believed Abu Bakr was the proper successor to Muhammad.

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The Prophet

Ended blood feuds and created a basis for an entire legal system.

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The Rashidun Caliphate

Muslim armies conquered most of Arabia, followed by North Africa, Mesopotamia, and Persia.

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Shi’a Muslims

Muslims that believed that Ali should have succeeded Muhammad as caliph.

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Caliph

The religious successor to Muhammad.

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Ali ibn Abi Talib

Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, considered by Shi'a Muslims to be the rightful successor.

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First Fitna

Series of conflicts and power struggles after the assassination of Uthman.

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Sunni

The larger of the two main branches of Islam, who believe the caliph should be elected.

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Shi'a

A minority sect of Islam that believes only God can appoint the successor to the prophet, choosing Ali.

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Jihad

A war or struggle against unbelievers.

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Islamic Ethics

Family responsibility, community obligation, sobriety.

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Muawiyah

Established hereditary rule in the Caliphate.

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Rashidun Caliphate

The first four caliphs in Sunni Islam: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali.

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Umar ibn Khattab

Nominated by Abu Bakr as his successor.

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Majlis

A council of electors.

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Rejection of Islam

Arabian tribes rejected Islam after Muhammad death.

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Islamic State

Islamic State cohesion

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Jahiliyya

Pre-Islamic era of ignorance and moral corruption.

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Command Right, Forbid Wrong

To command good and forbid evil, a central tenet in Islam.

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Early Islamic Narrative Tone

Gratitude for the Prophet and the establishment of a new moral order.

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Defining Arab/Muslim Identity

Continuous cultural reorientation to define Arab and Muslim identity.

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Danger of Jahiliyya Relapse

Relapsing into pre-Islamic behaviors and beliefs.

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Threats to Muslim Identity

Groups challenging the integrity of established Muslim beliefs.

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Qaramita

Muslim group whose proximity threatened Abbasid Islam.

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Byzantine Influence

Non-Muslims presenting alternative gender roles and sexuality to Muslims.

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Gender-Related Anecdotes

Stories used to illustrate proper roles and expose differences.

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Hijab

A headscarf worn by Muslim women.

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Niqab

A face veil worn by some Muslim women.

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Hijab Bans

Restrictions or legislation banning the Hijab from being worn in certain places.

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Women's Lamenting

Women's vocal displays of grief and mourning at funerals, sometimes discouraged.

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Reasons for Wearing Hijab

Religious obligation stated by God to believing women.

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Rashidun Caliphs

The first four caliphs after Muhammad, accepted by the ‘Umma and considered "rightly guided."

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Umayyad Caliphate

Established by Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan after defeating Ali’s forces, marked by hereditary succession and territorial expansion.

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Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

Emerged after the Rashidun Caliphate, expanding across three continents.

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Umayyads from Mecca

The dynasty hailed from this city and the family first came to power under Uthman ibn Affan.

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Damascus

Syria's capital that became the Umayyad's main power base and capital after its relocation.

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Umayyad Conquests

The expansion into the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula

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Legitimacy Issues

A challenge faced by the Umayyads due to it not being seen as rightly guided.

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Shift to Damascus

Moving the Caliphate from the Arabian Peninsula to this Syrian city implied the dynasty was turning away from Islamic roots.

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Dhimmi

Non-Muslims who were protected but subordinate, essential for governing the Umayyad Caliphate.

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Jizya

A tax traditionally paid by dhimmi to fund the jihad, which became inadequate as the empire grew.

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Land Tax

A land tax that the Umayyads forced all Muslims to pay.

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Abbasid Dynasty

A dynasty that revolted against the Umayyads and killed many of their family members.

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Capital Relocation

Was relocated from Mecca to Damascus by Mu’awiya to better govern the growing empire.

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Local Elites

Elite, regardless of their faith, used by Muslims to govern, collect taxes, and manage dhimmi.

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Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus)

Umayyed leaders escaped and expanded into this region, founding the Cordoba Caliphate.

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Legitimacy Challenge (Early Islam)

The sense of losing the original, pure Islamic faith due to the passing of the Prophet's contemporaries and increasing conversions.

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Umayyad Strategy for Survival

Maintaining a public image of religious devotion and righteous governance.

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Umayyad Methods of Maintaining Reputation

Building mosques and expanding the empire through military conquest.

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Umayyad Expansionism

Territorial expansion to gain resources and affirm authority.

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Limits of Umayyad Expansionism

Military defeats and limitations on territorial growth.

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Consequences of Umayyad Defeats

Internal divisions intensified due to the end of territorial expansion and the resulting loss of resources.

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Fall of the Umayyads

Overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty and rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.

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Abbasid Propaganda

The Abbasids publicly delegitimized the Umayyads by desecrating their tombs.

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Abbasid Purge of Umayyads

Massacring the Umayyad family, with one survivor founding a new Umayyad Caliphate in Iberia.

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Abd al-Rahman I

Established an Umayyad kingdom in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after fleeing the Abbasid purge.

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Women's Reaction to Prophet's Death

Women celebrating the death of the Prophet Muhammad in South Arabia.

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Ridda Wars

The ridda wars were a series of uprisings against the Caliphate after Muhammad's death.

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Women's Defiance

Public singing, dancing, and defiance of Muslim prescriptions for women.

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Perception of Women's Celebration

Seen as challenging belief in the Prophet and disrupting the newly established order.

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Abu Bakr's Response

Caliph Abu Bakr ordered the women's hands to be struck off as punishment for their celebration.

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Feeling Safe in Hijab

Feeling safe from unwanted attention and judgment based on physical appearance.

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Superficiality's Impact

When external looks are overemphasized, individual worth is diminished.

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Beauty Myth

The unrealistic and often harmful standards of beauty promoted by media and advertising.

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Forced into a Mold

Feeling pressured to conform to specific body types or appearances.

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Taking Control of Perception

Taking charge of how one is perceived, independent of external standards.

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Released from Bondage

Being free from the ever-changing demands and expectations of the fashion industry.

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Taking Control of Sexuality

The speaker feels they have agency over their own sexuality and how it is expressed.

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Rejecting Exploitation

To openly reject the fashion industry and institutions that exploit females.

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Liberation

The state of being free from oppressive societal expectations and achieving liberation through personal choices.

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Beyond Physicality

Seeing oneself as more than just a physical form, but instead a vessel for an intelligent mind and spirit.

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Quran on Modesty

Directs believers to lower their gaze and dress modestly.

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Verses of Hijab

Verses in the Quran (24:30-31) that mandate modest dressing for Muslim men and women.

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Full body covering

Loose-fitting, full-length garment, often worn with a head covering.

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The broader meaning of 'Hijab'

More than just a scarf; it’s a term encompassing modest dressing and behavior.

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Literal Meaning of Hijab

To veil, cover, or screen; the literal meaning is 'to veil'.

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Hijab's Social Role

Ensures that the moral boundaries between unrelated men and women are respected.

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Hijab's definition

Dressing and behaving modestly.

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Hijab as Identity

Sign of Islamic consciousness and a desire to be part of an Islamic revival.

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Hijab as Choice

Personal decisions and independent choices made by women.

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Hijab as Liberation

Freedom from being valued for looks, body shape, or as objects of desire.

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Hijab and Safety

Dressing modestly and covering hair minimizes sexual harassment.

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No Compulsion in Religion

There is no forcing anyone into religion.

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Hijab and Piety

Inner strength and fortitude.

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Hijab as Visibility

A visible sign of Islam.

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Judged by character

Impossible for people to judge her according to the way she looks.

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Study Notes

Five Pillars of Islam

  • Islam provides guidance for various aspects of life, including family, behavior, business, dress, and diet.
  • The five pillars are fundamental duties for Muslims, representing key aspects of Islamic practice.
  • The five pillars exemplify submission to God.
  • There are varying versions of these pillars with different Islamic groups.
  • The Five Pillars of Islam are the testimony, prayer, almsgiving, and pilgrimage

Witness to the Faith (Shahadah)

  • The core profession of faith is, "There is no God but God, and Muhammad is the Prophet of God.".
  • This testimony is essential for conversion to Islam.
  • Shahadah encompasses the belief in one God, angels, sacred books (including the Torah and Gospel), prophets (Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus), and the Day of Judgment and Resurrection.

Salah (Prayer)

  • Muslims are encouraged to attend Salah in a mosque
  • Preceding Salat is ceremonial bathing.
  • Salat involves Rakat, units of prayer with specific bodily movements, recitations, and prostrations.
  • Takbir ("Allahu Akbar") is recited during prayer.
  • The worshiper can engage in personal prayer after the formal sequence.

Fasting (Sawm)

  • Fasting is observed during Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar year.
  • It involves self-denial (abstaining from food, drink, and sensuous pleasures) and appreciation for God's gifts.
  • Fasting during Ramadan remembers when Muhammad received the first revelations from Allah.

Almsgiving (Zakat)

  • Zakat, the fourth pillar, is a tax of 2.5% of annual savings given to the needy and disabled.
  • Zakat is an act of worship that purifies both the giver and what is given.

Pilgrimage (Hajj)

  • Hajj is a once-in-a-lifetime religious journey to Mecca, if health and means permit.
  • It involves personal sacrifice and earned money.
  • Hajj offers an chance to reconnect with the founding of Islam and key figures like Abraham, Hagar, Ishmael, and Muhammad.

Bedouin Culture

  • Central Arabia was historically dominated by Bedouin tribal groups.
  • Bedouins had a tightly-knit culture.
  • Being born into Bedouin culture meant being part of a family unit (hayy) led by a male leader.
  • A clan (qawm) would form if the family was successful and large enough.
  • Associations of clans claimed tribal (qabila) status.
  • The oldest and wisest tribe members became Shaykhs.

Bedouin Tents

  • Bedouins developed portable tents.
  • Tents were made of woven camel hair and vegetable fibers.
  • The Bedouin tent is divided into two sections by a screen: one for men and guests (masjid), and one for women, cooking, and female guests (mahamara).

Bedouin Transhumance

  • Bedouins practiced transhumance by raising livestock and migrating between oases for grazing and water.
  • The Bedouin diet mainly consisted of cheese, dates, and animal meat.
  • Bedouin existence involved contact with outside cultures and trade for essential goods.
  • Poetry and language were preeminent forms of Bedouin art.

Bedouin Survival and Raiding Culture (ghazw)

  • The harsh desert life was a source of pride and desperation for the Bedouin.
  • Bedouins had knowledge of desert survival skills, like finding water.
  • The introduction of horses led to the Bedouin becoming a "horse culture".
  • Skilled raiders gained wealth and influence.

Blood Feud

  • Blood feuds arose from deaths during raids, requiring retaliation from the injured clan or tribe.
  • Shaykhs could negotiate blood money (compensation) or exchange tribe members to resolve feuds.
  • Unresolved negotiations could lead to a cycle of violence.
  • Bedouin society suffered from gender imbalance due to deaths from violence among men.
  • Plural marriage was a sociological response to protect widows and orphans.

Mecca

  • The Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad, a member of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca.
  • The Quraysh took control of Mecca in the 5th century and became skilled merchants.
  • Mecca's prominence as a trading center surpassed Petra and Palmyra.
  • Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes.

Cosmopolitanism and Cultural Crisis in Bedouin Culture

  • Contact with outside cultures was disruptive to Bedouin culture.
  • Bedouins were aware of the wealthy and sophisticated civilizations of Rome (Byzantium) and Persia.
  • Military recruiters enlisted young Bedouin men as mercenaries.
  • Bedouin culture was oral, relying on memorization and performance.
  • Literacy was viewed with suspicion.
  • Urban alienation and anonymity challenged Bedouin culture.
  • Mecca was governed by the Quraysh tribe, and justice was administered by tribal Shaykhs.
  • Banished tribal members, opportunists, aliens, and the abject lived on the margins in Mecca.
  • Mecca hosted pilgrims visiting the Ka'ba which was a site for pagan religious pilgrimage.
  • Economic inequality emerged as some Bedouins accumulated wealth, while others faced poverty and hardship.

The Caliphate

  • After Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr became the first caliph (religious successor).
  • The Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) was led by Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Khattab, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali.
  • Disagreements over Muhammad's successor led to the Sunni-Shi'a split in Islam.
  • Abu Bakr suppressed rebellions and united Arabia under the caliphate.
  • Muslim armies conquered North Africa, Mesopotamia, and Persia.

The Umayyads

  • The Umayyad Caliphate emerged after the Rashidun Caliphate.
  • The capital of the Umayyad Caliphate was Damascus.
  • The Umayyad Caliphate was one of the largest unitary states in history.
  • The Umayyads incorporated the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world.

Challenges Facing the Umayyads

  • The Umayyad Dynasty came about because of The First Fitna.
  • Some believed that only members of the Banu Hashim clan, Muhammad’s clan, could rightly be said to be rightly guided.
  • The relocation of the government from Mecca to Damascus carried a symbolic burden that suggested that Mu’awiya was turning his back on the Islamic roots of the Caliphate.
  • The challenge of managing non-Arabic speaking populations.
  • The Umayyads were eventually forced to ask all Muslims to pay a land tax.
  • Veterans of the faith thought that the True Faith was fading away with the original people who knew the prophet.

Umayyad Strategy

  • The Umayyads maintained its reputation for piety and purpose.
  • The empire kept growing, Umayyads could claim both the legitimacy of victory as well as the spoils of war that could pay for this administration.

Limits of Expansion

  • In 715, Turkish intervention in the Oxus region compelled Muslims armies to abandon the area for more than two decades.
  • In 733 the Frankish leader Charles Martel defeated an Umayyad raiding party near Tours.
  • The main Umayyad forces did indeed succeed in cutting the city off from its hinterland for an entire year, 717–18, and threatened to destroy the entire Byzantine state but Byzantium survived and the siege had to be lifted.
  • The Muslim armies for the first time suffered really serious defeat.

Consequences of the Umayyads in the Wake of Defeat

  • Tribes were experiencing rivalries.
  • Factional, tribal, and regional struggles, complicated and embittered by doctrinal and sectarian differences, broke out and flourished with quite unparalleled virulence.
  • The upshot was the overthrow of the Ummayad dynasty and the establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in its place (750).

Hijab

Why Muslim Women Wear the Veil (2009)

  • Hijab refers to headscarves worn by Muslim women that has made headlines because of their banning in public schools and government buildings.
  • Muslim women choose to wear the hijab because they believe God has made it an obligation.
  • Quranic verses instruct believing men and women to lower their gaze and dress modestly.
  • Hijab is more than just a scarf; it's a term that covers various types of modest clothing with cultural connotations.
  • Hijab ensures that the moral boundaries between unrelated men and women are respected.
  • Many women view wearing the hijab as a aspect of Islamic revival.
  • Muslim women do it to freely adopt personal decisions and independent choices.
  • Women describe themselves as being "set free" from society's unrealistic fashion culture, sexual objectification, the need to conform to media stereotypes.
  • Women who choose to wear hijab do not make the decision lightly.
  • Hijab can be a symbol of piety and inner strength.
  • Despite challenges, women who wear hijab insist that the advantages outweigh any disadvantages created by media bias or general ignorance.
  • Women face animosity from Muslim and non-Muslim families when they decide to cover.
  • It's a visible sign of Islam and forces women to defend their decision to cover and their religion.

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