The Enlightenment and Voltaire

The Enlightenment

• 1600s-1700s marks the period of The Enlightenment.
• The Enlightenment ended around the time of the French Revolution.
• The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement.
• France was the center of the Enlightenment.
• The Renaissance, the discovery of the New World, the Protestant Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution all influenced The Enlightenment.
• The causes of the Enlightenment include humanism during the Renaissance, the discovery of the New World which caused an intellectual crisis, the Protestant Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution.
• The Enlightenment expanded suffrage, abolished slavery, and ended serfdom.

Voltaire

• Voltaire was a French figure of the Enlightnement.
• He insulted a nobleman, and then exiled himself for 3 years to England in order to escape persecution.
• He was an embodiment of the Enlightenment.
• Voltaire wanted to crush infamy, which he defined as all forms of repression, fanaticism, and bigotry.
• Voltaire believed that the English parliamentary system was superior to French Absolutism

John Locke

• John Locke was an empiricist.
• Knowledge originates from a sense of perception.
• The human mind at birth is a "tabula rasa" (blank/clean slate), and all people at birth are equal.
• He challenged the foundations of social hierarchy and the idea that rulers were chosen by blood.
• Locke believed that kings were just better educated.
• He thought that evil exists not due to divine intervention, but because of a faulty environment.
• He believed that evil can be fixed and society can progress.

Denis Diderot

• Denis Diderot was French.
• Diderot critiqued Catholicism.
• He became a target for the monarchy due to this criticism.
• He was threatened with censorship and imprisonment.
• Diderot called for the democratization of knowledge.
• He wrote the first encyclopedia.

Main Enlightened Ideas

• Main Enlightened Ideas centered around natural rights, social contract, general will, representative democracy, separation of powers, and popular sovereignty.
• Natural rights include freedom and equality.
• Social contract means that the government rules on behalf of the people.
• General will means that the majority rules.
• Representative democracy creates republics.
• Separation of powers creates checks and balances to ensure that one part of the government or one person does not have too much power.
• Popular sovereignty is the idea that the government rules because of the people's will.
• Right-wing ideas are more conservative, while left-wing ideas are more liberal.
• Conservative ideas are traditionalistic and isolationist.
• Liberal ideas are progressive.
• Conservative governments are monarchies, absolutists, theocracies, sultanates, dynastic, and oligarchies.
• Liberal governments are direct democracies.
• Centrist governments are representative democracies, mixed democracies, and constitutional monarchies.

Pros and Cons of Democracy

• The Pros are that everyone gets a say in government and that rights are largely protected.
• The Cons are that everyone gets to say in government, including those with extreme ideas, possibly resulting in mob rule, and that minority rights can then be degraded as a result of majority rule.

Pros and Cons of Autocracy

• The Pros are that autocracy is more efficient and stable.
• The Cons are that autocracy is possibly tyrannical.

Revolutions and Reactions

• Well off citizens become dissatisfied with the government, causing revolution.
• Moderates take over
• Radicals take over in a “terror” phase, in which power goes from right, to left, to far-left, to mob rule.
• The process culminates in a period of relative calm, acceptance, and stability that is a return to the status quo

The American Revolution

• After the establishment of Jamestown in the 17th century, the British colony in America transforms into the 13 colonies, stretching across the East Coast
• Each colony has a government of its own, with its governor selected by the King of England, who then selected many important executive, legislative, and judicial positions.
• Since they have a legislature in which laws are made, the 13 colonies largely govern themselves for a long time, although with British supremacy.
• These colonies do not have any representation in the British parliament

The French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• The Ohio River Valley was contested by both Britain and France due to French pelters and Native Americans desiring the land to remain uncolonized, and British settlers wanting to settle and colonize the land.
• This was a problem for the French, because the settlement of the valley would destroy the beaver habitats, and ruin the French pelters' business
• Britain and France had already been at war, so this conflict was exported to America.
• British settlers were divided into 13 colonies, each with their own militaries and interests, which caused friction between them.
• Benjamin Franklin called for a unified army to fight the French and Indians, which created the Albany Congress; however, this congress fails, as all colonies do not send delegates.
• The colonies asked Britain for help, who shipped troops across the ocean.
• The British won the war, but suffered heavy casualties because of the opposition employing guerrilla warfare.
• French lands in NA were captured by the British, who allowed the settlers to colonize the new lands
• Indian tribes rose up and raided the new settlements along with the 13 colonies, called Pontiac's rebellion.
• Britain enforced the Proclamation Line of 1763, which meant that settlers could not settle land outside of the 13 colonies.
• Many of the Founding Fathers had purchased land in the Ohio River Valley for cheap, but after the Line, this land became useless
• The British government was in debt after the war.

Causes of the American Revolution

• Founding fathers caused the revolution for their own economic and social gain
• Many had land in the Ohio River Valley and could not sell it due to the Proclamation Line

Era of Taxation

• Parliament began to pass laws taxing the colonies to pass taxes.
• The Sugar Act of 1764 placed a tax on sugar, and bans the import of rum into the colonies to boost the British economy during a time when Britain was in debt.
• The Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax on all paper items.
• Applied to the entire British empire, but people in colonies paid 2/3s of what people in the British Isles did.
• The revenue generated from this tax would remain in the colonies.
• The Townshend Acts of 1767 were a tax on all colonial imports from abroad.

Colonial Response

• Colonists were not satisfied with British taxation, creating the slogan “no taxation without representation."
• However, the colonists remained loyal to the British King and were only against Parliament.
• Colonists began to boycott taxed goods, and illegally import items which created a black market in the colonies.
• John Hancock made a fortune bringing in untaxed, boycotted goods and selling them to the people.
• The Sons of Liberty were formed in Boston by Samuel Adams, beginning the Patriotic Movement.
• There would be tar and feather tax collectors.
• John Adams was the brother of Samuel Adams.
• He became a lawyer, and wanted a judgeship but couldn't get it due to the colonial government
• Samuel Adams also started the Sons of Liberty in order to get him this judgeship, along with the idea that him, and others that began the revolution would benefit after the freedom of the colonies
• Founding fathers controlled the printing presses (media), and managed to turn enough people against the British to cause a revolution.
• In doing this, they influenced the culture of the colonies, and also the ideas of uneducated people
• The First Continental Congress was made in order to figure out a response to the perceived British provocation.
• Each colony sent a delegate to this congress.
• They decided to send the Olive Branch Petition, in which the colonists asked King George II to restrain parliament from further taxation.
• King George did not respond, inflaming tensions.

Battle of Lexington and Concord

• Lexington and Concord were both cities outside of Boston.
• The British had a garrison in Boston, due to it being the capital of Massachusetts
• In the countryside, colonists were organizing arms and ammunition in preparation to overthrow British rule
• The British sent an expedition in order to destroy these stockpiles.
• Paul Revere, among others, warned the colonists of the British and give them time to organize.
• When the British arrive at these cities, the colonists and the British fight small battles, ending in the victory of the colonists, and the British retreat back to Boston.
• This created the "Shot heard around the world”, as this was the first time that people had fought back against a "monarchy" (Britain was a constitutional monarchy)

Battle of Bunker Hill

• This was the Battle for the high ground overlooking Boston
• Colonists got there first, but were low on ammunition.
• The British won this battle, but suffered heavy losses.
• Most colonists did not support the actions of the patriots.
• Thomas Paine's pamphlet “Common Sense” destroyed the loyalty of the colonists to the British King as the British parliamentary system was ineffective, as the system of checks and balances were not powerful enough to restrain the power of the king.
• Paine says that the states should immediately declare independence, unify into one confederation, and each state would keep its own power and be able to rule itself; federal government would make decisions on foreign policy but domestic power would lie in state governments.
• There would be no congress, supreme court, or president, and governments would be based on republican democracy in each state.

Declaration of Independence

• It occured during the second continental congress, and all colonies sent delegates, as many want to remain British colonies
• The result is that all colonies agree to break away from the British Empire
• The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776
• The Continental Army was formed, with George Washington at its head

America's First 'Civil War'

• During the American revolution, roughly ⅓ of the combatants were British loyalists, who were largely based in Georgia
• Here, the British later opened a southern front, and the patriots, in response, persecuted southern loyalists
• Another ⅓ were patriots, attempting to break away from Britain, and were largely based in the Middle and New England colonies
• ⅓ are neutral

Battle of Yorktown (1781)

• The French were supporting the Americans, and sent them troops and supplies, even though the French were an absolute monarchy supporting a movement for representative democracy
• George Washington appointed Alexander Hamilton as a colonel, and tasked him with taking a reinforced point on the city's defenses in order to bring Yorktown within artillery range
• They took the point in the middle of the night, leading to the eventual fall of Yorktown
• Half of the soldiers fighting in the battle were French

Articles of Confederation (1777/1781)

• The Articles went into effect after the war and were largely based on Thomas Paine's ideas on government; there was a weak central government anda strong state autonomy
• There were issues with the economy and foreign diplomacy
• The war caused the government to take out loans to fund the army
• Due to the Articles limiting the government's power to tax its citizens, the government could not pay the debt back and caused the American currency to devalue greatly
• The Treaty ending the Revolution had stated that loyalists who had their property destroyed had to be reimbursed by the federal government, but the federal government did not have money of its own, as it relied on the states sending them money, but they didn't.
• The British stopped their evacuation of forts in the Ohio river valley (a stipulation of the treaty), as the Americans were not holding up their own end of the treaty
• The Founding Fathers gathered to rewrite the Constitution, which replaced the ineffective Articles of Confederation.

US Constitution - 1788

• The US contitution caused the formation of 3 separate branches of government - legislative, judicial, and executive.
• The Legislative Branch is Bicameral and had a senate and a house of representatives.
• The Judicial Branch would judges based on federal laws and included the Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, and District Courts
• The Executive Branch carried out laws and was headed by the President and the Cabinet of the President.
• Federal regulation included regulating foreign and international trade, coining money, tax imports and exports, conducting foreign relations, maintaining armed forces, and declaring war.
• State regulation included regulating intrastate commerce, establishing and maintaining schools, establishing local governments, issuing licenses, permits, and certificates, maintaining the National Guard, and ratifying amendments to the Constitution

2 political parties in the US, based on support of the new Constitution

• These included the Federalists and Anti-federalists.
• Federalists desired the new constitution implemented. Main leaders invluded George Washington and Alexander Hamilton.
• Federalists desired an industrialized and trad-based economy. The main power base was located in the north and they showed implied support for an oligarchy to rule the government.
• The Anti-Federalists didn't support the new constitution. Main leaders included Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.
• They desired a rural, agrarian economy. They had maina power base in the south, and supported the implementation of democracy.

Implications of the Declaration of Independence

• The Declaration of Independence states that “all men are created equal”, and thus a debate on the status of racism and slavery was triggered.
• Slavery was then justified by the theory of racial superiority.

French Revolution

• The French Government at the time was an absolute monarchy, beginning with Louis XIV.
• Louis XVI took the throne, and was seen as incompetent, which fueled dissent in France.
• He was married to Marie Antoinette, as an alliance between France and Prussia.
• The Estates General was created during the rise of absolute monarchy, and acted as a legislative body to advise the king.
• The hierarchy followed in the Estates General was made up of the Roman Catholic Clergy, the Nobles, and the Commoners.
• The clergy and the nobility made up the “upper class”, while the commoners were the "lower class".
• Each estate was given one vote, and any laws or motions passed had to be approved by the king in order to be implemented
• The Estates General was used sparingly throughout French history, and had no real power

Financial Crisis in France

• France was in debt due to the French monetary and military support for the Americans in the Revolution.
• Money was borrowed to fund this revolution, and the clergy and nobility were exempt from taxes
• This meant that the commoners were the only group paying taxes
• At this point in French history, serfdom had been officially outlawed, but the peasants did not own the land they worked on, and had to give up a portion of their harvest to the lords, which changed almost nothing for most of the common population
• 50% of all revenue was used to pay off interest, which failed, and the amount of interest exceeded the amount originally borrowed
• 25% was spent on defense, leaving the rest for everything else
• Taxes fell on the peasantry. Due to this, the price of bread increases, and bread was the main component of most commoners' diets.
• 80% of their revenues went to buying food, causing other things to be neglected
• There was a decrease in manufactured goods, which causes mass layoffs and subsequently mass unemployment (50% of the population was unemployed)
• At this point, there was a growing split between the nobility(and the government itself) and the commoners, due to the indifference of the nobility to the issues of the commoners

The Estate General of 1789

• The Estate General was called for the first time in 150 years.
• This was made due to the king being pressured by the nobility, in order to retain their fiscal immunity.
• Because of this, the Third Estate broke away, and formed the National Assembly with the goal of creating a constitutional monarchy
• The King then ordered the privileged classes to meet with the Assembly, which gave the Assembly legitimacy by acknowledging them.
• The rest of the upper class began to fear a counter-revolution by the common man with the saying “Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood”

Storming of the Bastille

• July 14, 1789.
• This marks the official start of the French Revolution and is similar to Independence Day
• Due to the situation in the Estates General, the common man of Paris formed the provisional municipal government of Paris.
• Militias were formed to carry out duties, but firearms were needed. Many went to the Bastille to demand weapons, but were fired upon.
• This caused the crowd to overwhelm the military and storm the Bastille.
• The king panicked and acknowledged the National Assembly as the legitimate legislative body of the state, which allowed them to transform France into a constitutional monarchy

Countryside Revolution

• Set fire to manors.
• Nobles were murdered.

National Assembly Reforms

• It was run by the rich middle class (girondists).
• Tax exemptions and other privileges were removed.
• Catholic lands were seized, and Catholicism was no longer the official religion of France after this.
• Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, in September 1789 with sovereignty residing with the people.
• Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen/
• Voting was determined by both the amount of taxes paid and land ownership.
• Emigrant nobles travel to Austria and Prussia and attempted to convince those nations to overthrow the French Government.
• June 20, 1791 the monarchy flees, but get caught, which causes the French to begin thinking that he was against the revolution.
• European liberals welcomed the revolution, but the conservatives did not
• Over time, the other nations began realizing that this was a threat to their own power and national survival.

War of the First Coalition

• The first coalition was formed by Austria and Prussia, but this is because France declared war on both in 1792 done purely for foreign political relations.
• It was supported by the National Assembly, the opposition, and the radicals.
• The National Assembly concluded that going to war would unite France around it.
• The opposition (monarchists) supported war, as they thought that a loss in the war would cause the overthrow of the National Assembly and restore the king.
• The radicals believed that a loss would allow them to take power.
• The Brunswick Manifesto was presented by the Duke of Brunswick.
• This manifesto threatened Parisians with reprisal if the royal family was harmed
• 20k citizens, led by women, went to demand food from the king during the Bread march of Versailles.
• This morphed into an assault on Versailles, in which 900 guards fought 20k citizens. They lost, and the royal family was imprisoned
• Napoleon Bonaparte was a witness to this event

Formation of the National Convention

• The Jacobins took over, and were radical and egalitarian disciples of Rousseau.
• A national election created the National Convention with France declared a republic
• The king was put on trial for treason and executed by the guillotine with slavery being abolished in the French Empire.
• Manors were broken up and sold to the poor with efforts being made to abolish Christianity, due to the conflict it caused in the past and because it threatened the power of the government because of the influence it had on the government
• Attempts were made to replace it with cult of reason, which replaced religion with enlightened ideas, but was not received well by the populace
• Religion later became a private matter tolerated by state leading to a complete separation of church and state.

The Terror

• Power was given from the National Assembly to 12 men known as the Committee of Public Safety which ruled in an authoritarian manner to carry out reforms with the slogan "No enemy to the left!"
• 20k people were executed on the pretense of being an “enemy of the state”
• Class and status were ignored, with all people killed the same way by the guillotine, including Marie Antoinette
• The system lost popularity due to violence and continued economic issues such as inflation and debt

The Directory

• The Directory was what replaced the Committee.
• Elections were held in which the bourgeois/girondists (upper-middle class) dominated, but formed a coalition government with the Jacobins.
• They were unstable, having many purges, coups, and insurrections.
• They were also not successful in stabilizing the economy, and more specifically the debt issues.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Napoleon was Corsican, from a Corsican noble family, and was not accepted by the rest of the French nobles.
• He attended a military academy in Paris, graduated, and became an artillery officer
• Napoleon was seen as a 'Child of the Enlightenment'.
• He became famous because of his performance in the siege of Toulon.
• The British invaded and occupied the city of Toulon in southern France. Napoleon was in command at this battle, and spent months setting up a successful counterattack and freed the city, causing his prestige among the nobility to skyrocket
• He was promoted, and sent to invade Italy (Kingdom of Piedmont) as a diversion from the main attack, coming through Southern Germany
• Because he was succesful, he was able to move his army much faster than his contemporaries, as he did not have a supply line, and instead lived off the land.
• After subjugating these kingdoms, he sent the wealth back to France, bringing with it prestige and raising the morale of the French people
• When the Directory was under threat from an insurrection, he lined up artillery and shot at the crowds with grapeshot, saving it from being overthrown
• He was sent by the Directory to Egypt because Britain also wanted Egypt for themselves.
• The British, led by Lord Nelson, showed up and completely destroyed the French Navy
• The French Army then defeated the Mamluks, turning Egypt into a French colony for a short time, which spreads enlightened ideas to Egypt

The Rule of Napoleon

• He left his army in Egypt, and was smuggled into France
• From 1799-1804 he was named First Consul and executive/president, but governed more like a dictator
• He was an enlightened despot, as he ruled with a mix of egalitarian absolutism
• His popularity made the people want to declare him consul for life.
• In 1804 he crowned himself emperor .

The Haitian Revolution

• French West Indies.
• Was the wealthiest colony in the Caribbean which grew sugarcane and coffee, and was called Saint-Domingue.
• It was located on the island of Hispaniola, and the other half was controlled by the Spanish (now the Dominican Republic).
• In this colony, the slaves were not native. Slave deaths exceeded slave births.
• The slaves were more likely to revolt
• The class structure consisted of the Grands blancs (big whites), Petit blancs (small whites), Gens de couleur (free blacks), and Slaves.

The French Revolution arrives in Saint - Dominique

• All 3 groups supported the revolution and sent representatives to France (National Assembly).
• The Grands blancs wanted greater autonomy for the colony.
• The Petit blancs wanted greater equality in the colony between the white colonists.
• The Gens de couleur wanted racial equality.

The Revolt

• It began August 22, 1791 - The Night of Fire.
• Slaves began killing overseers and masters and burned plantations and sugarcane.
• Revolutionary France Responded by abolishing slavery by the National Convention.
• White colonists reacted and became counter-revolutionaries.
• Toussaint Louverture was a former, literate slave descendent of a king of a tribe of Africa.
• Louis trained 4k troops and led a guerilla war against the white aristocracy.
• Napoleon came to power and rejected racial equality of the revolutionaries.
• He sent 16k troops to restore French power and slavery with Luverture being captured and deported to France, where he died in prison.
• His lieutenant Jean-Jacques Dessalines took over and freed Haiti from French control after the French military had been decimated by rebellion and tropical diseases.
• Saint-Domingue was then renamed Haiti and became the 2nd colony to win its independence in the Americas.
• Desselaines wrote a constitution in 1805, which transformed Haiti into a republic with Dessalines as governor-general.
• There were internal military groups and the military slowly became controlled by a military dictatorship
• The USA was not in favor of this revolt, as it also had slaves.

The Fall of Napoleon

• France vs. the UK/
• The UK had the best navy, and blockaded France, but had the smaller army
• The France had a much stronger army, but its navy was annihilated by Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar.
• Continental System attempted economic integration of Europe, which had no tariffs on goods traded between the states
• When Russia, a major trading partner of Britain, joined the system, which caused their economy to stagnate
• Russia started began trading with Britain again, causing Napoleon to organize an invasion of Russia, which fails badly
• Napoleon returned to france and gets exiled to the island of Elbe
• In 1815, Napoleon was defeated by a coalition of forces at the Battle of Waterloo.
• He was exiled to Saint Helena.

Liberation Movements in South America

• Were caused by the export of enlightened ideas to South America, the fact that non-Spaniards were not allowed to hold public office, the American and Haitian revolutions.
• The invasion of Sapind by Napoleon and the subsequent loss of most power and influence made the colonies less important for Spain controlling mainland Spain

Venezuela, 1806 - 1822

• It was led by Francisco de Miranda, who founded a revolutionary assembly and declared independence from Spain and led a campaign to get rid of the Spanish.
• An earthquake killed 20k people soon after, which was interprted as divine intervention against the revolutionaries.
• Miranda was captured and led to the failure of the revolt.
• Simon Bolivar takes power, and reignites the revolution
• He captured Caracas and proclaimed the Second Venezuelan Republic, but he was defeated, and forced to flee to Jamaica, where he regrouped and reorganized his forces.
• By 1822, 3 other nations were liberated: Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, which are organized into 1 new nation known as Gran Colombia
• Bolivar turned the country into a dictatorship, and this started the continuity of Spanish nations being led by dictatorships
• Rebellions freed the propertied classes from outside control and did nothing else. They were in no way based on the enlightement

End of the Slave Trade

• Slavery was ended in theory, but replaced by forced labor-indentured servitude.
• Economists considered paid labor to be cheaper than slave labor.
• Multiple states across the world ban the practice of trading slaves.
• Slave trade shifted to Angola and Mozambique.
• Slavery outlawed in the UK, U.S banned the trade and eventually outlawed itself

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

• Increases in population lead to increases in demand for goods.
• Laws protecting property leading to capitalists pursuing wealth
• Adam smith's the wealth of nations
• Different areas would the industrial revolution at their times, england started it all
• Occured between ~1780 - ~1830 in Britain because of the effects of the Agricultural Revolution and its London Trade Center thanks to tariffs.
• Parliment financed canals and harbors and it had access to natural resources.
• Main industry - textiles. Did not allow the trade of artisans and machinary

The British Textile Industry

• Imposed tariffs on East Indian cottons to spur the British textile industry.
• Machinery moved into factories located next to water and Eli Whitney invented a cotton gin for longer fiber.

The Factory System

• Centralized location and were unsafe and insanitary.
• These factories stored large machinery because of Adam Smith's theories.
• Free marker capitalism allowed squealed living conditions.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

• Caused urbanization and industrialization.
• Pollution from factories and lack of services were present.
• Social mobility was present and the emergence of a middle class grew.

Trains

• George Stephenson steam powered train.
• Rail roads allowed Europe and America to increase sale of goods

Trade Unions/Labor Protests

• Shows how theories made during enlightenment did not help the common man
• Luddites would destroy equitment until they were tracked.

The Middle East and the Industrial Revolution

• Marginally an Ottoman vassal
• British press the Ottomans to pardon the Mamluks and Had an army loyal to his land
• The people select Muhammad Ali as the official leader.
• He invites the key Mamluks to a diner in Cairo, where they are all killed.
• ends the Mamluk control of Egypt.
• Ali attempts to fix to Egypt and modernize it with modern weapons
• Ali fights the Whahbi movement in conflict with the Ottomans

Alergia

• Ottoman territory under the elector or Ali.
• Provided grain on credit after France invades and overthrows the dey.
• Abd forms a guerilla movement wanting to make war unpopular.
• France deploys and destorys villages as Al ends up in France

The Ottoman Empire and the Industrial Revolution

• The population were concerned with rulers overspending.
• The Ottomans were ruled a Sultan with local autonomy
• There are no enlightened principles in the Quran
• Tanzimat translates to “reordering” to protect the population from internal issues. Some of these issues included tax collection, torture, and banks loans
• Due to the failure of the Ottomans to generate revenue from their subjects, the industrialization of the Middle East was wholly dependent on the investment of Europeans

Major Concessions

• Including but not limited to the Suez canal, The British building many railroads
• This caused Ottomans declaring Bankruptcy

Naval Arms Race

• Caused WW1 as Britain became concerned about German power.
• Franco Britan cordate alliance used as deterrent
• There was fears of a Berlin bagdahd railroad.

Womans Suffrage Movment

• Movement that advocated for the Woman's right to vote.
• Emmiline was a radical leader of the movment Had violent attacks to spark a movement