The Emergence of Nationalism

The Emergence of Nationalism

• The developments of the time caused people to question what India was meant for and to whom it belonged
• India belonged to all Indians, regardless of class, color, caste, creed, language, or gender
• The country, its resources, and systems were meant for all of them
• Awareness grew that the British were controlling India's resources and the lives of its people
• India could not truly belong to Indians until British control was ended
• Political associations began to voice this consciousness after 1850, especially in the 1870s and 1880s
• Most associations were led by English-educated professionals, such as lawyers
• Important associations included the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and the Indian National Congress -"Sarvajanik" means "of or for all the people," signifying that these associations, though acting in specific regions, stated their goals for all Indians, not a singular community or class
• These associations believed the people should be sovereign, empowered to make decisions about their affairs, a key feature of nationalism

Dissatisfaction with British Rule

• Dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the 1870s and 1880s
• The Arms Act of 1878 prohibited Indians from possessing arms
• The Vernacular Press Act was enacted to silence critics, allowing the government to confiscate newspapers' assets for publishing "objectionable" content
• The Ilbert Bill of 1883 sought to allow Indians to try British or European individuals, and to bring equality between British and Indian judges
• White opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill, angering Indians and highlighting British racial attitudes

Indian National Congress Formation

• Educated Indians had felt the need for an all-India organization since 1880, with the Ilbert Bill controversy heightening this desire
• The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885, with 72 delegates meeting in Bombay
• Early leaders included Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, and S. Subramania Iyer
• Naoroji, settled in London as a businessman and publicist, guided younger nationalists
• A retired British official, A.O. Hume, also assisted in bringing Indians together from various regions

Early Congress Objectives

• The Congress sought to be a nucleus of a future Parliament for their country
• The Congress comprised representatives, not of one community on its own, but of all communities of India
• The Congress was deemed "moderate" in its early objectives and methods
• The Early Congress sought a greater voice for Indians in government and administration
• There were calls for Legislative Councils to have more representation and power and introduction in provinces where none existed
• There were demands for Indians to be placed in high government positions via civil service examinations held in India and London
• Calls to Indianise the administration due to monopolisation of important jobs by white officials
• British officers' sending salaries home caused a "drain of wealth" to England
• More demands were made for separation of the judiciary from the executive, repeal of the Arms Act, and freedom of speech and expression

Economic Issues

• British rule led to poverty and famines
• Increased land revenue impoverished peasants and zamindars
• Grain exports to Europe created food shortages
• Demands were made to reduce revenue, cut military expenditure, and increase irrigation funds
• Resolutions passed on the salt tax, treatment of Indian laborers abroad, and forest dwellers' suffering due to forest administration
• The Congress addressed issues beyond professional groups, zamindars, and industrialists, despite being a body of the educated elite

Moderate and Radical Approaches

• Moderate leaders aimed to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule by publishing newspapers, articles, and speeches
• They sent representatives to mobilise public opinion, believing the British would accept just demands if aware of Indian feelings, and had respect for ideals of freedom and justice
• By the 1890s, leaders in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab questioned the Congress's political style
• Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai explored mores radical objectives and methods
• They criticised the the Congress for their "politics of prayers", they emphasized self-reliance and constructive work
• It was argued that people must rely on their own strength and fight for swaraj
• Tilak's slogan was, "Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!"

Partition of Bengal

• In 1905, Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal, which included Bihar and parts of Orissa
• The British claimed it was for administrative convenience
• Instead of removing non-Bengali areas, the government separated East Bengal and merged it with Assam
• British motives were to curtail Bengali politicians' influence and split the population
• The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India, and all sections of the Congress opposed it
• Large Public meetings, demonstrations, and novel methods of mass protest developed
• The struggle became known as the Swadeshi movement, strongest in Bengal but with activity elsewhere

Swadeshi Movement & All India Muslim League

• Opposed British rule and encouraged self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education, and use of Indian languages
• Radicals advocated mass mobilisation and boycott of institutions/goods, and some suggested "revolutionary violence" was necessary
• The All India Muslim League was formed at Dacca in 1906 by Muslim landlords and nawabs
• The League supported Bengal's partition and wanted separate electorates for Muslims, which the government conceded in 1909
• Seats in councils were now reserved for Muslims to be elected solely by Muslim voters
• Politicians were therefore tempted to gather a following by distributing favours to their religious groups

Congress Split

• In 1907 the Congress split because moderates opposed boycott, feeling it involved force
• Domination of moderates occurred after the split when the moderates came to the fore, with Tilak's followers functioning from outside
• In December 1915, the two groups reunited
• Next year, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact working together for representative government

Growth of Mass Nationalism

• After 1919 the Struggle against British rule became a mass movement
• Participants included peasants, tribals, students, and women
• Certain Business groups supported congress in the 1920s
• The First World War altered the economic and political situation in India and led to a rise in the defence expenditure of India's government
• Taxes on individual incomes and business profits Increased
• Military expenditure and war supplies led to price rises which therefore created great difficulty for the common people
• The war created demand for industrial goods, declining imports, the expansion of Indian industries, and demand for greater development opportunities

First World War

• Indian industries expanded and Indian businesses were demanding greater opportunities for development
• The British lead the war to expand their army and pressured villages to supply soilders to serve an alien cause
• Imperialist powers exploited peoples of Asia and Africa
• Soldiers understood the exploitation of peoples by imperialist powers after the war and wanted to oppose colonial rule in India

Revolution in Russia

• In 1917 revolution took place in Russia
• News about peasants' and workers' struggles and ideas of socialism circulated widely
• The revolution therefore inspired Indian nationalists

Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi

• Mahatma Gandhi arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa, aged 46 as a mass leader
• In South Africa, Gandhi had already led Indians in no-violent marches against racist restrictions, and was a respected international leader
• Hindu, Muslim, Parsi, and Christian; Gujarati, Tamil, and north Indians were touched by Gandhi's South African campaigns
• The first year was spent travelling round the country, understanding the people, their needs and the overall situation
• Gandhi's earliest interventions were in local movements in places like Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad He came into contact with Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel
• He also Led A successful Millworkers Strike in 1918

Rowlatt Satyagraha

• In 1919 the Rowlatt Act was criticised by people like Mahatma Gandhi and Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as it curbed fundamental rights like freedom expression, increased police powers, and as the government was being "devilish and tyrannical"
• Gandhi urged people on 6 April 1919 to non-violently oppose the act with a day of "humiliation and prayer" + "hartal (strike)"
• The Rowlatt Satyagraha was the first all India struggle against the British government
• Brutal measures were used by the government to supress the demonstrations and hartals
• Jallianwala Bagh atrocities was imposed by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (13 April)
• Rabindranath Tagore expressed the pain and anger of the country and renounced his Knighthood to express the loss and grievance

Khilafat Agitation & Non-Cooperation Movement

• Participants tried to ensure Hindus and Muslims were united to join in the fight against the British rule, with the call of Mahatma and Ganhdi
• Gandhi thought of India as an inclusive land, including groups from Hindus, Muslims, and other religions supporting each other for a just cause
• The Khilafat issue took place due to the British imposed Treaty on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa
• People were fuming over the British for the Jallianwala massacre and also the event surrounding the Turkish Sultan
• Indian Muslims were keen to have the Khalifa retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottonman Empire
• Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali wished to lead initiation of a Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhi urged Congress supporting against “Punjab wrongs" (Jallianwala massacre), the Khilafat wrong and demand swaraj

Non-Cooperation Movement Momentum

• Momentum gained through 1921-22, Thousands of students leaving government controlled schools and colleges
• Lawyers such as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up practices as British titles were surrendered, People started lighting bonfires of public bonfires of cloth
• The Imports of foreign cloth fell drastically between 1920 and 1922 but this was merely the iceberg
• Large parts of the country were on the brink of a formidable revolt led by people's initiatives as people resisted British rule

Gandhi's Call

• Different classes interpreted Gandhi's call in their own ways, protesting in a way that wasn't accordant towards Gandhi's ideas
• Movements were also linked to local grievances e.g. Patidar peasants in Kheda organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British + Liquor shops Picketing in coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu + "forest satyagrahas,” performed due to the forest restricting, believed forest regulations would be abolished by Gandhi
• In Sindh and Bengal Traders and Peasants were enthusiastic on joining the Khilafat Call and Bengal also Joined with the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation combining the National Movement
• In Punjab to remove the British Support corruption Mahants
• Assam demanded "Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai” to which the British owned garden Labourers with Big increase for wages
• Additionally Assemese Vaishnava songs were substituted to substitute "Gandhi Raja"

Mahatma as a Messiah

• People thought of Gandhi as a kind of Messiah who would overcome the misery of the people
• Gandhi wished to unite class together and thought peasants would imagine he would fight against Zminders +Agricultural Labourers that would be the reason of being provide Land
• Peasants of Pratapgarh managed to stop illegal eviction in tenants, stating in was Gandhi who won against this demand
• The Congress followers had mentioned that Ganhdi was against violent movements, and abruptly cut off the Non-Cooperation Movement because in February 1922 a Crowd set fire to a Chauri Chaura police station, due to having twenty two policemen that were killed for firing at peaceful demonstrations
• Additionally the the Congress had to take control over the Council, as in the mis-1920's
• The Rastritya Swayamsevak Sangh Hindu and communist party would have to decide what this Indian nation would would look like

Explore the rise of nationalism. Discover how people started questioning India's purpose and ownership. Learn about the political associations that voiced this consciousness after 1850.