56 Questions
What event in 410 CE is marked by some historians as the beginning of the Middle Ages?
The sack of Rome by the Visigoths
What was the primary motivation behind the eight crusades launched by Christians during the early Middle Ages?
To stop the Islamic influence that had been spreading rapidly
Where were Aristotle's writings rediscovered during the Middle Ages?
During the Crusades
Why is the period known as the 'Dark Ages' referred to as such?
Because it is 'dark' only with reference to the Western world
What is the meaning of the word 'Islam', and what are the followers of the religion called?
Islam means 'surrender to God', and its followers are called Muslims (or Moslems)
What is the holy book of Islam, and what does it contain?
The Koran, which contains the teachings of Muhammad
Who was Avicenna, and what was his contribution to philosophy?
A Muslim physician and philosopher whose translations of, and commentaries on, the works of Aristotle strongly influenced subsequent Western philosophers
How quickly did Islam spread after Muhammad's death in 632 CE?
Within 30 years, the Muslims had conquered Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Persia, Sicily, and Spain
What did Avicenna postulate about human thinking?
Avicenna postulated five external senses and seven interior senses, arranged in a hierarchy.
How did Avicenna's active intellect differ from Aristotle's?
For Avicenna, the active intellect took on theological qualities, allowing humans to understand the cosmic plan and relate to God.
What was the main disagreement between Avicenna and Averroes?
Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's arrangement of human intelligences, believing all human experiences reflect God's influence.
What was Averroes' view on the survival of the soul after death?
Averroes believed that only the active intellect survives death, and since it is the same for everyone, nothing personal survives.
What was Maimonides' goal in his philosophical work?
Maimonides attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Judaism.
What did Maimonides anticipate in his medical work?
Maimonides anticipated the modern concern with psychosomatic disorders by showing the relationship between ethical living and mental health.
What is the ontological argument for the existence of God?
The ontological argument is that if we can think of something, it must be real, and since we can think of a perfect being (God), that perfect being must exist.
What was Lombard's view on understanding God?
Lombard believed that God could be known by studying His works, and there were three ways to learn about God: faith, reason, and the study of God's works.
What method of study did Abelard introduce in the Scholastic period?
Abelard introduced the dialectic method, where questions are raised and several possible answers are explored to seek truth.
What is the definition of Scholasticism?
Scholasticism is the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings.
What philosophical position did Abelard propose as a compromise between realism and nominalism?
Conceptualism
What was the goal of St. Thomas Aquinas in his philosophical endeavors?
To reconcile faith and reason, showing that both lead to the truth of God's existence
What was the significance of St. Albertus Magnus' work?
He made a comprehensive review of Aristotle's work and presented it to the church scholars
What is the central argument of William of Occam's philosophy?
Reality is what we experience directly, and there is no need to assume a 'higher' reality beyond our senses
What is Occam's Razor, and what is its significance in philosophical inquiry?
The principle that of several equally effective alternative explanations, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted
How did William of Occam's philosophy change the question concerning the nature of knowledge?
From a metaphysical problem to a psychological problem
What is the significance of William of Occam's views in the history of philosophy?
They mark the end of the Scholastic period and the beginning of modern empirical philosophy
What is the primary claim of skepticism in philosophical inquiry?
That all beliefs can be proved false, and thus it is best to believe nothing
What was the outcome of Abelard's debate with William of Champeaux on realism versus nominalism?
Abelard won, becoming the most popular teacher
What was the significance of Abelard's relationship with Heloise in the history of philosophy?
It had no direct impact on philosophical thought, but it influenced Abelard's life and legacy
What was the primary goal of the Skeptics in their philosophical pursuits?
To attain a life of quietude, tranquility, or imperturbability by refraining from making judgments about things that could not truly be known.
What is the core belief of Cynicism?
The best life is one lived close to nature and away from the rules and regulations of society.
According to Epicureanism, what is the key to attaining the good life?
Living a life of moderation and rationality.
What philosophical stance did Occam take regarding the existence of universals?
Nominalism
What is the core belief of Stoicism?
One should live according to nature's plan and accept one's fate with indifference or courage.
What was the primary difference between Epicureans and Stoics?
Epicureans believed in the physical nature of the universe, including the soul, while Stoics believed in living in accordance with nature's plan.
What was the prevailing social climate in the Western world during the heyday of early Christianity?
Widespread superstition, fear, and persecution of nonbelievers
What was the contribution of Muslim and Jewish scholars during the early Middle Ages?
Translation of Greek and Roman philosophers' works and making advances in medicine, science, and mathematics
What was the central idea of Indian Vedantism?
Emphasis on the importance of semiecstatic trances.
What was necessary for the Western world to embrace Aristotle's philosophy?
Human reasoning powers had to be made respectable
What was the primary characteristic of mystery religions?
Secret rites of initiation and a strong sense of community among members.
Who were among the first Western philosopher-theologians to embrace Aristotle's work?
Abelard and St. Albertus Magnus
What was the core belief of Judaism?
Individuals are responsible for their actions, and God rewards or punishes them accordingly.
What was the significance of Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 CE?
It made Christianity a tolerated religion within the Roman Empire.
What was the significance of Avicenna, Averroës, and Maimonides in the history of philosophy?
They attempted to reconcile Aristotelianism with their respective faiths: Islam and Judaism.
What was the primary obstacle to open, objective inquiry during the early Middle Ages?
The prevailing negative social climate and absolute power of the church
What was the key contribution of Augustine to Christian thought?
Shifting the locus of control of human behavior from external to internal, through the concept of an internal sense of morality.
What was the broader impact of the reemergence of science during the Middle Ages?
It paved the way for a paradigm shift, marking a departure from the dominant theological worldview
What was the main concern for Augustine when drawing upon older pagan philosophies?
The motivation behind using them, whether it was for worldly or Christian ends
How did Augustine conclude that the fact that he doubted could not be doubted?
Through introspection, examining his own inner experiences and recognizing that he lived, remembered, understood, and thought even when doubting
What characterized the early Middle Ages in terms of progress and education?
Little to no progress in science, philosophy, and literature, and limited education mostly reserved for priests, monks, and nobility
How did the Islamic world influence the philosophical achievements of 12th and 13th-century Europe?
Through the works of Avicenna and his colleagues, which were later built upon by Christian theologians
What was the significance of St. Anselm's work in preparing the Western world for the acceptance of Aristotle's philosophy?
The reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith
What was the main goal of Abelard and Magnus in their philosophical endeavors?
To synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings
What was the central debate between realists and nominalists, and how did Abelard propose to resolve it?
The debate was over the existence of abstract universals, and Abelard proposed conceptualism as a compromise between realism and nominalism
What was the greatest task and achievement of Aquinas?
The reconciliation of faith and reason, showing that God could be known through various means
What were the effects of Aquinas's work on the study of faith and reason?
It divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately, and it made the study of nature respectable
What was the method of study used by Scholastics to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology?
The dialectic method, which involves raising questions and exploring possible answers
Study Notes
The Early Middle Ages
- The Early Middle Ages marked the beginning of the decline of Greek and Roman cultures, which led to the disappearance of scientific, philosophical, and literary works.
- The Church gained power, and the use of reason and critical thinking declined.
Islamic Influence
- Islamic philosophers, such as Avicenna and Averroës, preserved and translated the works of Greek philosophers, including Aristotle.
- They attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic teachings.
- Their work had a significant impact on the development of Western philosophy.
Scholasticism
- Scholasticism was the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings.
- Scholastics used the dialectic method, which involved raising questions and exploring possible answers.
- Key figures in Scholasticism include Abelard, St. Albertus Magnus, and St. Thomas Aquinas.
Key Figures
- Avicenna: Developed a philosophical system that combined Aristotelianism with Islamic theology.
- Averroës: Wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works, which influenced Western philosophers.
- Maimonides: Attempted to reconcile Aristotelianism with Judaism.
- St. Anselm: Argued that faith and reason are compatible, making it possible to use reason to understand God.
- Peter Lombard: Emphasized the importance of studying God's works to understand God.
- Abelard: Proposed conceptualism as a compromise between realism and nominalism.
- St. Albertus Magnus: Made a comprehensive review of Aristotle's work, presenting it to the Church.
- St. Thomas Aquinas: Reconciled faith and reason, making it possible to study nature and use reason to understand God.
Philosophy and Reason
- Realism: The belief that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals.
- Nominalism: The belief that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal labels or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experience.
- Conceptualism: A compromise between realism and nominalism, proposing that concepts do not have independent existence but are more than mere names.
The End of Scholasticism
- William of Occam's philosophy marked the end of the Scholastic period.
- Occam's razor: The belief that of several equally effective explanations, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted.
- Occam believed that reality is what we experience directly, and there is no need to assume a "higher" reality beyond our senses.
UNIT 1 - Chapter 3 - Short Answers Study
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