The Construction of Asia

Asia: A European Construct?

• European commentators have historically viewed Asia as a geographical and cultural unit
• Ancient Greeks referred to Anatolia (modern Turkey) as 'Asia'
• In Homer's Illiad, 'Asia' denoted the limit of Aegean mariners' eastward movement, named after the Assuwa principality
• Some ancient people referred to those from Asia as people of the Sun or the East
• The Greek historian Herodotus framed past events as a rivalry between 'Asia' and 'Europe'
• Asia emerged partly from Europe's need for an "other" to define itself, as noted by Benedict Anderson
• In the 16th century, geographical works contrasted 'Europa' with weapons, scientific instruments, and Christian symbols, and 'Asia' with attire, camels, and monkeys
• Montesquieu (1689-1755) characterized Europe as 'progress' and Asia as 'stagnation'
• The term 'Asiatic' in later European writings became associated with lavishness, vulgarity, and arbitrary rule

Edward Said (Orientalism, 1978)

• The terms 'Asia', 'Asiatic', and 'Oriental' often had negative connotations
• The perceived decadence of the 'East' served to highlight the vitality of the 'West'
• The ‘Orient’ holds varying meanings and represents Europe's richest colonies, civilizations, and recurring image of the Other

Is Asia an Asian Creation?

• Okakura Tenshin (1862-1913) emphasized a broad expanse of love for the Ultimate and Universal between Chinese and Indian civilizations
• This distinguished the Asiatic race from maritime peoples of the Mediterranean and Baltic
• Spirituality was seen as the unifying factor of Asia

India

• Vivekananda (1863-1902) stated Europe was mainly the basis on the material plane Asia was the basis spiritually throughout history
• Asia produces spiritual giants, while the Occident produces giants in politics and science

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

• Worked to promote a renascent Asian civilisation focused on a spiritual civilisation
• At 60, he helped establish an Asian Research Institute for Asian languages and cultures

Interaction Between Scholars

• Vivekananda traveled to Japan in the late 19th century
• Okakura spent time in India in 1901-02
• Tagore knew of Okakura and believed there was an Asiatic mind
• Tagore traveled to Japan, China, and Southeast Asia, forming relationships with thinkers

Exclusive Nationalism?

• The Russo-Japanese War led to a new Asian pride
• Japan's Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere was built around an idea of Asia, but was exclusive
• Some Japanese thinkers favored 'departure from Asia' to disassociate from Asian neighbors and align with Europe
• The Asian Relations Conference in 1947, organized by India, featured an "Inter-Asian Art Exhibition," but was dominated by India
• The journal Xinyaxiya (New Asia) launched in China in 1930, advocated Sun Yat-sen's nationalist cause of regenerating China as the start of regeneration for Asian peoples

Examples of Regional Unity

• There is no organization encompassing all of Asia
• Regional institutions help blur sub-regional boundaries
• Challenges to unifying Asia include: Ethnocentric approaches, excessive diversity, lack of a unifying body, and regional rivalries

Ethnic Diversity

• China: 95% Han, with over 50 national minority groups
• India: 74% Indo-Aryan, 23% Dravidian
• Indonesia: 45% Javanese, with over 300 ethnic groups
• Malaysia: 50% Malay, 30% Chinese, 9% Indian
• Philippines: Diverse population: Tagalog 28%, Cebuano 14%, Ilocano 8%, Bisaya/Binisaya 8%, Hiligaynon Illonggo 8%
• Singapore: 79% Chinese, 13% Malay, 7% Indian
• Thailand: Majority Thai, 14% Chinese
• Vietnam: Almost 90% Vietnamese

Religious Diversity

• China: Taoist, Buddhist (officially Atheist)
• Indonesia: 89% Muslim, 7% Christian
• India: 82% Hindu, 13% Muslim
• Japan: 85% Shinto and Buddhists
• Korea: 30% Buddhist, 25% Christian
• Malaysia: Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist
• Philippines: 82% Catholic
• Singapore: 43% Buddhist, 15% Muslim
• Thailand: 95% Buddhist
• Vietnam: 81% Atheist, 10% Buddhist, 7% Catholic

Linguistic Diversity

• India has 22 scheduled languages and more than 19,500 spoken languages/dialects
• The Philippines has 11 languages and 87 dialects

Political Diversity

• Democracies: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, India
• Authoritarian Regimes: North Korea, Brunei, China
• Monarchies: Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, Japan
• Failed States: Afghanistan, North Korea

Economic Diversity

• Singapore: 65,233.28 USD
• Japan: 40,246.88 USD
• Nepal: 1,071.05 USD
• Afghanistan: 507.10 USD

Basis for Asian Unity – Buddhism

• Buddhism dominates Bhutan, Myanmar, Cambodia, Tibet, Laos, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand
• Large Buddhist populations reside in China, Japan, Taiwan, Macau, North Korea, Nepal, Vietnam, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea
• Pilgrims may have experienced a sense of 'Asian' commonality traveling between Nara, Sian, Korea, Srivijaya, and Nalanda

Basis for Asian Unity – Confucianism

• Visible in East Asia and Southeast Asia, cultural relations existed between 'Confucian states' of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• Korea's houses, utensils, administration, and implements are copies of China
• Japan has Chinese standard works and Chinese/Korean notation

"Others Before Yourself"

• Champa, Funan, Khmer Empire, Langkasuka Kingdom, Sriwijayan kingdom, Medang Kingdom, Singhasari, Majapahit Empire all had influence

Islam in Asia

• 62% of Muslims live in Asia
• Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh have the largest populations

Colonialism Definitions

• There are several definitions for "Asia" including: Asia, Asia-Pacific, Asian Pacific, Asia and the Pacific, Asia/Pacific, East Asia, Eastern Asia, Far East, Greater East Asia, Pacific, Pacific Asia and Pacific Rim
• Definitions of Asia relate to power, prosperity and identity
• Different powers associated with different terms: Far East (British), Greater East Asia (Japanese), Pacific (American)
• Asia Pacific, Pacific Rim and Pacific Asia are linked to rising economic interdependence/prosperity

"Asia Rising" - Why is the Idea Problematic According to Acharya?

• The idea of early imagination of Asia by Asians to mostly a defensive reaction to Western dominance is increasingly seen as linked to power politics
• The "Asia rising" discourse carries the risk of hiding dominance within and between states
• Conflating Asia with the rise of Asia imposes a Western view of power politics
• All of Asia is not growing uniformly, however the rise of Asia is often overemphasized
• Nations not part of the rise of Asia are excluded
• Asian values associated with authoritarianism
• The rise of Asia is neither linear nor cannot be reversed

Importance of Asia

• Asia has ~60% of the world's population, is home to diverse traditions and the most populated countries
• Indonesia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are the world's largest Islamic nations
• Great civilisations in Asia have made key contributions, such as the home of the religions Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism
• Asia has 4 of the world's 8 societies with the longest life expectancies
• Diaspora includes 50 million Chinese and 32 million Indians overseas
• There are 4 important nuclear weapon states in Asia
• Region expects to contribute ~60% of global growth by 2030
• China, Japan, & India, top 5 in GDP rankings
• 5 Asian states are in the top ten for military ranking
• Asia accounts for half the world’s internet users

Impact of Colonialism on Asia

• The role of historical legacies and normative factors in shaping Asia were mainly: colonialism, collective memories, nationalism, and pacifism

Impact of Colonialism on Asia - Cartography

• Surveying and mapping were necessary for the colonizers to obtain economic/political benefits
• Gaining control of territories led to higher revenue generation
• Cartographic representation justified imperial projects
• Colonizers ignored socio-cultural, linguistic, and religious complexities to get more revenue

Border Disputes Resulting from Cartography Practices

• India and Pakistan had battles due to this
• India and China had battles due to this
• Radcliffe Line: India/Pakistan, Kashmir Issue
• McMahon Line: India/China border
• India-Nepal border dispute, Thailand-Cambodia border dispute, Maritime Boundary Issues in Southeast Asia and East Asia
• Traditional frontiers defined a political kingdom in a loose demarcation
• Transition from frontier to border was a result of the colonial modernity and inorganic

Impact of Colonialism on Asia - Sovereignty

• Understanding of sovereignty in South Asia is trapped under 'autonomy' mentality due to post-colonial syndrome that has states paranoid by India
• To secure imperial interests, Britain annexed territories of Nepal, attacked Afghanistan, and took Sri Lanka

Colonial Empires' Disregard of Sovereignty

• Colonial powers often did not respect sovereignty of neighboring states, which led to perceptions of India as being an overpowering threat

Impact of Colonialism on Asia - Emergence of Nation States

• Asian nation-states were artificial creations, putting the onus to manage on their respective political systems
• Nationalism was transported but could not synchronize with traditions, causing a major drawback
• South Asia political systems are not illegitimate or artificial, however there's an attempt to apply the European system to nation states which leads to excluding certain groups

Results of Nation State Building

• Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka, systemic violence against the Chakmas in Bangladesh, Rohingyas in Myanmar, Muslims in India, Hindus in Pakistan, Tamils in Sri Lanka, and Maweshis in Nepal

Impact of Colonialism on Asia - Bureaucracy and Bureaucratic Culture

• Asian bureaucratic models were adopted without being adapted
• bureaucracy attributes during British rule was centralization, rigidity, elitism, and secrecy
• Bureaucratic elites were colonial education results and preserved the colonial legacy
• The bureaucratic structure in the post-colonial period was more developed than any political structure

Post Colonial Power dynamic

• Subordination of political organizations made way for the civil and military bureaucracy leading to a 'bureaucratic-military oligarchy' such as in Pakistan and Myanmar

Impact of Colonialism on Asia - Collective Memories

• Collective memory is the distribution of beliefs, feelings and moral judgements about the past
• Vehicles of collective memory- history, facts, research, etc., commemoration

Memory Perspectives

• Presentist: beliefs about the past are affected by present circumstances which can change
• Cultural: memory is defined as information and symbols moved due to cultural values for the present

China: Century of Humiliation (Starting 1839)

• Defeat in First Opium War (1839–1842) and unequal treaties
• Defeat in Second Opium War (1856–1860) and sacking of the Old Summer Palace
• Treaty of Aigun (1858) and Treaty of Peking (1860) ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia
• Partial defeat in Sino-French War (1884-1885) ceded control over Vietnam
• Defeat in First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
• Eight-Nation Alliance invasion to suppress the Boxer uprising (1899–1901)
• British expedition to Tibet (1903–1904), Twenty-One Demands (1915), Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931–1932), and Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
• China lost 1/3 territory and 35 million causalities during WWII
• Collective memory puts more weight on strength to avoid second humiliation century
• Pursuing national interests is a defence against oppression
• Xi Jinping took Politburo Standing Committee to an exhibition about the Century of Humiliation

Memories of Japanese Imperialism in Asia

• Painful histories determine relationships; e.g., the Nanjing Massacre
• Comfort women issue strains relationships with Korea
• Instances of war crimes create modern suspicion
• Massacres include: Manila (1945), Kalagong (Burma), Sook Ching (Singapore)

Japanese Memory

• Victimization of Japan in the atomic bombing blunts criticism
• Post-war Japan deemed demands for apology/compensation less urgent, but had mellowed over time

Korean Memory

• Koreans see “opportunism” in Japanese officials' apologies
• Korea endures the deepest sense of shame even as it rebuilds

China Memory

• Chinese believe their subordination is an anomaly and expect recovery of nation's dominance
• Anger over war-time brutality has risen

Memories of Partition in South Asia

• Films like Khamosh Pani, 1947 Earth, Tamas, etc show that these affected foreign policies

Northeast Asia’s Memory Problem

• In dignity cultures, forgiveness assuages guilt and violates rights, but east is closer to honour culture
• There's no comforting vocabulary when you wound honour
• Northeast Asia's memory is impactful since violations of honour are more resonant than violations of dignity in the west

Memory: Northeast Asia vs West

• Unlike the West, memory is negative in Northeast Asia and traumas prevent a relationship with the present
• The objective detail of Japan's World War II atrocities and exculpatory tone is an issue
• There's an implacable refusal among China and Korea to accept apologies unless there's “sincerity”

Development of Ethnocentric Nationalism

• Current aggressive Chinese nationalism stems from the Chinese “tributary” state system and "middle kingdom" belief
• The narrative of the “century of humiliation" has been used to create hyper-nationalism in China
• Nationalism is on the rise in Japan and impacts Japan’s relations with China and South Korea
• Increased nationalism in India has caused communal riots and discriminatory laws

Development of Pacifism as a Normative Factor

• Japan adopted a pacifist constitution after the end of World War Two
• Continues to maintain military capability
• Remains a non nuclear state
• This is against mainstream theories because they aren't maximizing power

Theoretical Approaches to International Relations in Asia

• Origins of international relations is embedded in western history
• IR is seen as either American or Western science (Stanley Hoffman)
• It reflects the narratives, values, principles, practices and behavior of the west
• Modern period of IR began in peace of Westphalia (1648)
• It’s with peace of Westphalia that Europe formed nation states
• After American dominance theories became American (realism, liberalism, constructivism)

Limits of American IR Interpretations

• The non-western countries have very little place in this narrative
• IR study shouldn’t just be nation states, but also all other countries

Corrected Definitions

• Alternate names include: World Politics, Global Politics
• Should include politics, economics and culture
• Broaden historical scope and look at other relations aside state, and the strategic

What the narrative excludes

• Islamic, Mughai and Ottomon empires for example also contribute to how relations exist, and inventions in primitive globalization
• It also doesn’t give weight to contributions traders from Southeast Asia, China and Japan contributed in spreading ideology

A Global Idea of IR

• Pluralistic universalism acknowledging diversity
• Grounded in world history
• Takes into account regions
• Abandons exceptionalism
• Includes resistance when judging

South Asian Geopolitics

• Factors include rivalries, states and the cold war with the push for nuclear war, ties with SAARC and BIMSTEC which promote relationships in those regions

What is South Asia?

• Areas include: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka
• They are insular due to surrounding natural landscapes leading to different languages

Brief Political System

• Parliamentary led by president and prime minister
• India gained independence in 1947 led by the INC party
• Pakistan however has military rule with Islamic leadership

The India-Pakistan Conflict

• Partition of India and Pakistan began as a collective memory _ Different land divisions split Muslims from Hindus
• The first India-Pakistan War of 1948 started due to partition and princlple choice to either join India, Pakistan or remain independent,
• The second war in in 1965 when Pakistan launched 'Operation Gibraltar' in Kashmir
• The third war in 1971 made way for Bangladesh to be separated from Pakistan, lead by India
• Relations also include Sikh Insergency due to Pakistan funding that
• The Kargil War 1999 was the biggest war
• The 2001 Indian parliament was attacked by Pakistani terrorists
• Escalation continued and 2016 led to a surgical strike

Long Term Disputes

• Insisting Pakistan is causing separatist movements
• Water disputes/boundaries are on-going

Difference in the Pakistan and India systems

Pakistan is a military dictatorship whereas India is a stable democracy

South Asia Nuclear Potential

• Pakistan and India have conducted tests with this leading to nuclear weapons (shaking of the non-proliferation regime) with US backing from India and a growing power between the countries

Alternate Courses to Improve Relations

• Remaining neutral
• Regional security
• Rely on larger powers for defense

Afghanistan: Background and History

• It is strategic, religious due to Islamic government with ethnic composition of Afghanis, and Pashtuns
• Longest governance thanks to King Zahir Shah

Soviet Phase

• Increased Russian influence led to closer relations while US began to become wary
• Afghans began to demand the creation of Pashtunistan as Pakistan closed the border with them
• A Communist party rose known as PDPA creating tension with muslim relations

How Soviet Afghanistan Was Formed

• Fear of civil war and increasing communism in other districts led to Soviet entering
• Soon rebels took over with the aid of the US, Pakistan, and China
• Eventually led to Taliban and the leader of Al-qaeda entering

Current Afghanistan Landscape

• The Taliban now crumbles quickly in Afghanistan and under the Biden administration US has recently withdrawn under 2021 - Current relations include seeking a good bond with government as well as Iran

Current Players

• Both Afghanistan and Tehran are trying to find ways to benefit most
• India has been active so it has people to ally with it
• China is seeking security

How Taliban First Formed And Effects

• Were formed and grew from Mujahideen as well as Pakistani meddrasas - Taliban jurisprudence came from Pre-Islamic tribal code of Pashtuns Accused with civilian massacre, slavery with women, medieval injustice

Taliban - 2.0

• Resembles that of the 1990s due to ensuring some liberal rights They have taken several steps that indicate crackdown with virtue ministries

US withdrawal from Afghanistan

• Could alter Chinese influence, specifically those surrounding the Uyghurs. as well as Indian security

Sri Lanka History

• After Portuguese and Dutch came to Sri Lanka, British colonized in 1802
• Even after this adopted law known as Soulbury Constitution. - In 1800, Ceylon became a crown colony
• In 1972. the British law adoption ended in 1971
• 74% of the people are Sinhalas and Buddhist, other 15% are Tamil - Indians brought over during occupation as labor

Ethnic Tensions and Results

• Tamils start insurgency as governments attempt to create Tamil elam, which resulted in 80,000 being killed
• India intervened with peacekeeping forces
• This all lead to the assassination of India's PM Gandhi
• India continues to have sour relations due to maritime boundary dispute

China Sri-Lanka relations

• Debt is very large for the country and there is large investment
• China has leased certain areas as well for 99 years

Human Rights-India

• Several organizations have shed light on human rights violations
• In response the Lanka UNHRC adopted rights regulations
• However, the new government withdrew the rights of the Sri Lanks

What do the numbers show?

• There are now more members and votes against certain issues

Bangladesh Overview

• Bangladesh became independent in 1971 mostly with help from India
• Two major political parties are known as Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP-not very pro india) and Bangladesh Awami League (Pro-India)

Economic Details

• Economies have seen 7% increase, with most trade occurring through their large garment industry

Disputes

• Several disputes include construction with barrage rivers and borderlines with issues of smuggling as well, or the ongoing Rohingya issue

Politics in Bangladesh

• There is much unease, and following student protest, Bangladesh's PM has fled to India - There is great tension however Biejng is concerned about Dhaka

Regional Relations

• China remains the biggest trading partner, but India sees proximity as its trade
• India's policy has shifted from a continental to a maritime perspective.

What makes SAARC fail?

-There are not enough commonalities between the different states

• There's dispute/ India does not resolve
• Not enough functional progress due to political struggles.

What do the current nations do?

-Japan continues to adopt a pacifist policy, and the US has allowed the base of Japanese

• The US and Japan both want to make sure there is a balance to Chinese rule

Article 9 on the Japanese Constitution

• Reiterates all ideals of international peace- as well as that to not include any military rule

Japan and Their Actions

• Japan has many restrictions to maintain and is heavily dependent on the US system

Financial State of Japan