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Questions and Answers
What is the objective of the Color of Law?
What is the objective of the Color of Law?
Segregation is not de facto; it is de jure segregation engineered by public policy.
Which federal administrations refused to issue mortgages to African Americans in designated white neighborhoods?
Which federal administrations refused to issue mortgages to African Americans in designated white neighborhoods?
FHA and VA.
How did the federal government impose racial segregation in areas without preexisting racial problems?
How did the federal government impose racial segregation in areas without preexisting racial problems?
By segregating housing by race, such as in California with defense workers and public housing development.
What was the primary purpose of public housing?
What was the primary purpose of public housing?
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What was the goal of the PWA?
What was the goal of the PWA?
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What significant program was created in response to the housing shortage post-WW2?
What significant program was created in response to the housing shortage post-WW2?
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What did the Housing Act of 1949 permit local housing authorities to do?
What did the Housing Act of 1949 permit local housing authorities to do?
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What were the consequences of the Housing Act (1949) on African Americans?
What were the consequences of the Housing Act (1949) on African Americans?
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Which presidential administration approved the implementation of segregation in government offices?
Which presidential administration approved the implementation of segregation in government offices?
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At what governmental level were policies implemented to isolate white families into all-white neighborhoods?
At what governmental level were policies implemented to isolate white families into all-white neighborhoods?
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What was the Buchanan v. Warley (1917) case about?
What was the Buchanan v. Warley (1917) case about?
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What are economic zoning techniques?
What are economic zoning techniques?
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How did Black neighborhoods turn into slums?
How did Black neighborhoods turn into slums?
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Why weren't FHA insured mortgages issued to African Americans?
Why weren't FHA insured mortgages issued to African Americans?
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What are the two faces of zoning according to Richard Rothstein?
What are the two faces of zoning according to Richard Rothstein?
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What is redlining?
What is redlining?
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What was the Homeowners Loan Corporation (HOLC)?
What was the Homeowners Loan Corporation (HOLC)?
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How do homeowners qualify for insured mortgages?
How do homeowners qualify for insured mortgages?
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What was the FHA's biggest impact on segregation?
What was the FHA's biggest impact on segregation?
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What argument is made for racially segregated housing developments?
What argument is made for racially segregated housing developments?
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How did homeowners and developers circumvent the 1917 Buchanan ruling?
How did homeowners and developers circumvent the 1917 Buchanan ruling?
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What are covenants in real estate?
What are covenants in real estate?
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What government institutions promoted and enforced restrictive covenants?
What government institutions promoted and enforced restrictive covenants?
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What was the decision in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)?
What was the decision in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)?
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What did JFK's 1962 executive order do?
What did JFK's 1962 executive order do?
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What is blockbusting?
What is blockbusting?
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What tactics were used in blockbusting?
What tactics were used in blockbusting?
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What are installment plans in housing?
What are installment plans in housing?
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What are contract sales agreements?
What are contract sales agreements?
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Why did homes under contract sales agreements deteriorate?
Why did homes under contract sales agreements deteriorate?
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What are the implications of contract sales agreements?
What are the implications of contract sales agreements?
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Which institutions contributed to and reinforced metro segregation?
Which institutions contributed to and reinforced metro segregation?
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What is reverse redlining?
What is reverse redlining?
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What are subprime mortgage loans?
What are subprime mortgage loans?
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What legal actions were taken against banks and mortgage companies?
What legal actions were taken against banks and mortgage companies?
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What did the Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibit?
What did the Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibit?
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How can we understand the income and wealth gap between African Americans and whites?
How can we understand the income and wealth gap between African Americans and whites?
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What elements of the slave system persisted after Emancipation?
What elements of the slave system persisted after Emancipation?
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What were the provisions of the G.I. Bill, 1944, that disadvantaged African Americans?
What were the provisions of the G.I. Bill, 1944, that disadvantaged African Americans?
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Can an assessor undermine tax fairness?
Can an assessor undermine tax fairness?
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How did tax rates impact African American families?
How did tax rates impact African American families?
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According to Rothstein, why is segregation hard to undo?
According to Rothstein, why is segregation hard to undo?
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Why is sales tax more burdensome for lower-income consumers?
Why is sales tax more burdensome for lower-income consumers?
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What programs deepened racial segregation?
What programs deepened racial segregation?
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Why do developers prefer tax credit programs in low-income neighborhoods?
Why do developers prefer tax credit programs in low-income neighborhoods?
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What are the impacts of Section 8 housing vouchers on low-income families?
What are the impacts of Section 8 housing vouchers on low-income families?
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What was the 2015 Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, Inc. ruling about?
What was the 2015 Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, Inc. ruling about?
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What are the challenges of addressing de jure segregation?
What are the challenges of addressing de jure segregation?
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Why is Rothstein hesitant to suggest desegregation policies?
Why is Rothstein hesitant to suggest desegregation policies?
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What remedies to segregation does Rothstein propose?
What remedies to segregation does Rothstein propose?
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Were African Americans given opportunities for upward mobility in the service sector?
Were African Americans given opportunities for upward mobility in the service sector?
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What occupations did FDR's New Deal policies exclude?
What occupations did FDR's New Deal policies exclude?
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Study Notes
Color of Law Summary
- Objective of Color of Law emphasizes that segregation was not merely a social construct (de facto) but rather legally enforced (de jure) through public policies.
- FHA and VA were federal administrations that systematically denied mortgages to African Americans in predominantly white neighborhoods and to white sellers to Black buyers.
- Racial segregation was imposed by the federal government even in regions without historical racial issues; for example, California segregated housing for defense workers.
- The primary purpose of public housing was to create civilian housing near military bases and for defense workers.
- The PWA aimed to alleviate a national housing shortage while simultaneously creating construction jobs.
- Post-WW2 housing shortage prompted a debate between enacting a segregated housing program or integrating housing; Truman administration made legislative attempts to curb segregation.
- The Housing Act of 1949 allowed continued segregation in public housing projects, enabling racial divisions.
- The Housing Act consequences relegated African Americans to high-rise ghettos devoid of job access and social services.
- The Woodrow Wilson administration set the national precedent for accepting segregation policies in government offices since 1913.
- Local policies created all-white neighborhoods through racial segregation ordinances, exemplified by Baltimore's zoning in 1910.
- Buchanan v. Warley (1917) challenged racial zoning, asserting property owners' rights to sell regardless of race, although alternate zoning methods emerged to segregate communities.
- Economic zoning techniques kept middle-class neighborhoods exclusive, financially inaccessible to lower-income families of any race.
- Changing zoning codes to industrial categories led to the deterioration of Black neighborhoods into slums.
- FHA insured mortgages were withheld from African Americans based on risky assessments associated with nearby mixed-use developments.
- Richard Rothstein described zoning's dual purpose: exclusion of Black residents from white neighborhoods and protection of white neighborhoods against perceived decline.
- Redlining involved color-coded maps depicting neighborhoods’ safety, with red zones marked as high-risk, often influenced by the presence of even a single Black household.
- The Homeowners Loan Corporation (HOLC) facilitated property retention through purchasing mortgages on the verge of foreclosure, providing favorable repayment conditions.
- FHA’s stringent appraisal standards, tainted by redlining, rendered African Americans ineligible for insured mortgages.
- The FHA greatly enhanced segregation by financing racially exclusive subdivision developments, such as Levittown.
- Racially segregated housing developments were justified by claims of maintaining property values.
- Housing developers circumvented the Buchanan ruling by including restrictive resale clauses in property deeds that forbade sales to non-whites.
- Covenants were private contracts within neighborhoods enabling neighbors to sue if an African American family attempted to purchase property.
- Courts upheld restrictive covenants in 1926, claiming they were private agreements, asserting they were not government-sanctioned actions.
- Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) ruled that the enforcement of racially restrictive covenants violated the Equal Protection Clause.
- JFK's executive order in 1962 prohibited the use of federal funds to support housing discrimination.
- Blockbusting involved real estate agents inducing white homeowners to sell cheaply based on fear of Black migration, then selling homes to Black families at inflated prices.
- Deterioration of properties under contract sales was common due to inflated costs preventing equity accumulation for African American homeowners.
- African Americans faced a cycle of retaliatory economic hardships due to excessive tax liabilities and property seizures by speculators.
- Numerous institutions, including the IRS and banks, reinforced segregation through policies and practices that were detrimental to African American communities.
- "Reverse redlining" characterized the targeting of African American neighborhoods for predatory lending practices.
- The Fair Housing Act of 1968 sought to eliminate racial discrimination in housing transactions.
- The G.I. Bill of 1944 systematically excluded African Americans from benefits, including housing subsidies and vocational training for skilled jobs.
- Rothstein articulated that the historical context of de jure policies reinforced long-lasting economic disparities affecting African Americans.
- Proposals from Rothstein to remedy segregation included zoning reforms, tax code amendments, and more equitable distribution of housing resources across neighborhoods.
- Overcrowding in neighborhoods and schools often resulted from failing housing policies restricting African Americans' mobility and homeownership opportunities.
- Legal challenges against banks revealed discriminatory lending practices, emphasizing the racial bias in mortgage terms and targeting.
- Various tax programs inadvertently entrenched segregation by promoting development in impoverished neighborhoods over integrated ones.
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Description
Study key concepts from 'The Color of Law' with these flashcards. The quiz covers important terms and historical actions related to racial segregation policies in the United States. Test your understanding of the federal administrations involved and the differences between de facto and de jure segregation.