The Cold War: Causes, Ideologies, Alliances

• The Cold War was a long-term rivalry between the Soviet Union and the West.
• Stalin distrusted the West due to the appeasement policy, especially the Munich Agreement of 1938.
• The West resented Stalin for signing the Nazi-Soviet Pact and invading Poland in September 1939.
• Capitalism and Communism are different ideological beliefs.

Ideological Differences

• Capitalism promotes individual ownership of property and businesses, allowing people to make money.
• Communism advocates for state ownership of all property to ensure fairness.
• The Soviet Union had a single-party rule, classless society, and state-owned property, prioritizing workers' rights over individual rights.
• The USA and Britain had democracy with free elections, inequality of wealth, and private ownership.

Grand Alliance

• The Soviet Union was invaded by Germany in June 1941.
• In 1941, Britain, the USSR, and the USA formed an informal alliance to defeat Hitler.

Differences during the Second World War

• Stalin was annoyed by the delay in opening the second front because he felt that the Allies wanted the Soviet Union to be weakened.
• The discovery of Soviet atrocities, such as the Katyn Forest massacre, strained relations.
• There were disagreements over the Balkans at Tehran.

The Tehran Conference

• The Tehran Conference took place in November 1943 with Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt present.
• Agreement :a second front would be opened; Stalin would declare war on Japan after Germany's defeat; Poland would receive land from Germany, but the Soviet Union could keep what it seized from Poland; and an international body would be set up to resolve disputes through negotiation.
• A point of tension was Churchill wanted an invasion of the Balkans to halt the Soviet advance but was opposed by the USA and the Soviet Union. Roosevelt seemed to view British colonialism as more of a threat to world peace than the Soviet Union, which also created tension between Britain and the USA.

The Yalta Conference

• The Yalta Conference took place from February 4–11, 1945.
• Good relations between Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt hinged on a positive relationship between Roosevelt and Stalin.
• Concerning Germany: it would be reduced in size, pay reparations ($20 billion, half to the Soviet Union), demilitarized, and plans were made to divide Germany.
• The Nazi party was banned, and a war crimes court was established.
• The United Nations was established, with its first meeting on April 25.
• The Soviet Union would declare war on Japan 3 months after Germany's defeat.
• Poland was in the 'Soviet sphere' but would be run on a democratic basis with free elections.
• Future governments of Eastern European countries would be decided in free elections.
• There was some tension over Poland because Britain had entered the war to defend it.
• Differing opinions of 'democracy' existed.
• Stalin's suggestion that all 16 Soviet republics should have individual membership of the UN was rejected.

The Potsdam Conference

• The Potsdam Conference took place in July–August 1945.
• Leadership changes: Roosevelt was replaced by Truman, and Churchill was replaced by Attlee.
• Suspicion increased due to the US development of the atomic bomb.
• Agreements on Germany included banning Nazis and prosecuting those remaining, reducing its size, and dividing it into four zones (plus the capital). Industrial equipment was given to the Soviet Union.
• Disagreements arose over how heavy reparations should be and distrust over the atomic bomb.
• The Soviet Union's undemocratic actions in Poland, after agreeing to set up a government that included Capitalists and Communists but failing to do so, caused disagreement. No agreement was reached over the government of Eastern Europe.

Impact of the atomic bomb

• Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.
• Over 120,000 Japanese civilians were killed by the two atomic bombs.
• There is debate about whether the US used it to establish a stronger negotiating position with the Soviet Union.
• It made Truman more confident and less willing to compromise at Potsdam.
• Stalin was more determined to create a buffer zone in Eastern Europe.
• The event triggered an arms race, with the Soviet Union testing an atomic bomb in 1949.
• Tensions in the Cold War increased dramatically, but the devastating impact deterred them from using it in the future.

The attitude of Truman

• Truman attempted to assert his authority at Potsdam.
• He was less willing to compromise than Roosevelt.

Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe

• It was influenced by the Novikov telegram, 1946.

Satellite States

• Satellite States were established to combat 'dollar imperialism,' the Marshall Plan, and the Truman Doctrine.
• Steps to secure control included free elections, fixed elections if Communists were not chosen, and the removal of opposition once in power.
• Control was extended by compliant leaders, the use of police and army, 'rationalizing' industries so they were dependent on each other, and an atmosphere of fear and mistrust.
• Yugoslavia, run by Tito, was not occupied by the Red Army and split from the Soviet Union in 1948, but remained Communist.
• Albania was taken in 1945 but not occupied by the Red Army, resulting in more independence.
• The Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) became part of the Soviet Union.
• East Germany was taken in 1949.
• Bulgaria was taken in 1945.
• Hungary was taken in 1947.
• Poland was taken in 1947.
• Romania was taken in 1947.
• Czechoslovakia had a Communist government set up in 1948 under Klement Gottwald.

Churchill and the 'iron curtain'

• On March 5, 1946, in Fulton, Missouri, Churchill delivered his speech during a trip in America, with Truman's support.
• The West viewed the Soviet Union as an opponent and a threat to world peace and freedom.
• This was a response to communist governments being set up in Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.
• Stalin's response compared the West to Hitler. The Soviet Union strengthened its forces and stepped up its campaign of anti-Western propaganda.

The Secret Telegrams, 1946

• The Long Telegram was sent by George Kennan, the US ambassador in Moscow.
• Stalin wanted destruction of capitalism and felt the world was unfriendly and looking to destroy communism.
• Kennan believed that if faced with strong opposition, the Soviet Union would back down, not self-destruct.
• The Novikov Telegram was sent by a Soviet diplomat in Washington.
• It claimed that the USA wanted to use military power to dominate the world.

The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

• The US was worried about the economic situation in Europe, which made communism appealing.
• British withdrawal from the Greek civil war in 1947 caused the US to step in.
• The Truman Doctrine was announced on March 12, 1947.
• Influenced by the Long Telegram of 1946, it announced US aid of $400 million for Greece and Turkey. The US would send military and civilian personnel to the region.
• Stated that America would send troops and economic resources to help governments threatened by Communism, marking the end of isolationism and a new policy of 'containment'. The US was now leading, no longer the UN.
• The Marshall Plan was launched in 1947 with $13 billion to help economies recover and weaken the attraction of Communism.
• European countries had to agree to a thorough review of their finances and to trade with the US.
• It was accepted by Austria, Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and West Germany.
• The Soviet Union rejected the aid and insisted satellite states refuse aid.
• The British foreign secretary called it "a lifeline to sinking men, giving hope where there was none."

Impact on relations

• It was an unofficial declaration of the Cold War, ending the Grand Alliance.
• Stalin's suspicions of the West were strengthened.
• Europe was divided into rival economic and political camps, with Western European countries tied into supporting the USA.

Cominform

• The Communist Information Bureau was established on September 22, 1947.
• It represented Communist parties across Europe under the directive of the Soviet Union.
• It encouraged European parties to stir strikes and unrest, e.g., France.
• It spread anti-Western propaganda, comparing America to the Nazis.
• It was also used to ensure loyalty in satellite states.

Comecon

• The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established on January 25, 1949.
• It was an alternative to the Marshall Plan.
• Its members included the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. East Germany and Albania joined in 1950.
• The aim was to foster economic development in Eastern Europe and prevent trade with Western Europe and America.
• Economic recovery would remain within Eastern Europe.
• It would minimize Western political influence.
• Eastern Europe would not have access to western prosperity.

Differences over Germany

• There were questions over whether Germany should remain neutral or be in the US/SU sphere of influence.
• There were also questions over whether Germany should have a Capitalist/Communist government.
• Should Germany receive Marshall Aid?
• Should US/SU troops remain in Germany?
• Division was meant to be temporary.
• The Allied Control Commission (ACC) was the central organization for the four zones.

Bizonia

• In 1947, the US and British zones began acting as one.
• In March 1948, the French joined, creating Trizonia.
• Germany and Berlin were now split into two parts.

Berlin Crisis 1948-9

• In 1948, Britain, France, and the USA set up a German assembly to create a German constitution.
• In June 1948, Britain, France, and the USA introduced a new currency, the Deutschmark, creating a separate economic unit from the East and effectively accepting that there were two Germanys.
• Stalin opposed this, seeing it as more American influence and the permanence of American troops remaining.
• Stalin feared war from the West and thought they were deliberately trying to force the Soviet Union zone into poverty. He was more determined to protect Soviet Union interests.
• In June 1948, Stalin established a blockade, hoping to force the West out of Berlin.
• From June 1948, the US (Op. Vittles) and Britain (Op. Plainfare) responded with an airlift.
• By January 1949, 170,000 tonnes of supplies had been sent into Berlin.
• The airlift was a propaganda success for the Americans.
• In May 1949, Stalin ended the blockade.
• In September 1949, West Germany was created as the Federal Republic of Germany.
• In October 1949, East Germany was created as the German Democratic Republic.

Setting up of NATO

• The Berlin Crisis and the Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia are causes.
• It was meant to keep the US in and the SU out.
• Established April 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
• The USA, Britain, and 9 other Western European countries were a part of the treaty.
• If one member was attacked, all members would defend the victim.
• It was a military alliance.

Korean War

• Korea was divided, with the North allied with the Soviet Union and the South allied with the US.
• The North Korean leader, Kim Il Sung, wanted to unite Korea.
• Kim II Sung attacked South Korea in June 1950.
• America responded by applying the Truman Doctrine and sending UN (US) troops.
• Initially, North Korea pushed UN troops back (Sept, 1950).
• MacArthur led troops and pushed North Koreans back to the Chinese border (Nov 1950).
• China entered the war.
• Fighting continued on the 38th parallel until 1953.
• Showed US commitment to containment.

Consequences

• US increased defense spending.
• Marshall Aid moved to defense spending.

Khrushchev and peaceful co-existence and the Warsaw Pact

• Nikita Khrushchev became Russia's leader after Stalin's death (1953).
• The Secret Speech of 1956 marked an end to Stalinism and a policy of peaceful coexistence.
• The Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 as an alliance of Eastern European countries, mirroring NATO.

The impact of Soviet rule on Hungary

• Land and resources were redistributed to other countries and shipped to the Soviet Union.
• Hunger was prevalent.
• Non-communist parties were banned.
• A policy of terror was implemented.

Rakosi

• Rakosi was a dictator from 1949 to 1956, practicing oppressive salami tactics.
• He was a bald butcher and Stalin's best pupil.

De-Stalinisation

• An end to Stalinism was announced in the secret speech of 1956.
• Announcement of de-Stalinisation was followed by riots.

Nagy and his demands

• Nagy was appointed as a Liberal leader by Khrushchev.
• Nagy's proposed reforms included Hungary leaving Warsaw, the end of the Communist government in Hungary, Hungary becoming a democracy, and Hungary having UN protection.

Reasons for Soviet invasion

• Khrushchev believed the reforms were unacceptable.
• Khrushchev feared others would attempt to break away.
• Russia invaded in November 1956.

Effects

• There was death.
• Hungarians fled West.
• Nagy was executed.
• Thousands across Europe resigned membership of the Communist party.
• Showed US not committed to liberating Satellite States.
• Few uprisings afterwards

The U2 incident 1960

• In May 1960, the Russians shot down a US U2 Plane and captured Gary Powers, who confessed to spying.
• Its effects on the Paris Summit Conference were that Khrushchev left the meeting after Eisenhower failed to punish the U2 program.

Reasons for the construction of the Berlin Wall 1961

• Refugees from East Germany escaped to West Germany in high numbers.
• The 1959 Geneva meeting (Khrushchev and Eisenhower) and the Camp David meeting failed to agree on a solution.
• Khrushchev threatened war if Kennedy did not remove troops from Berlin.
• Khrushchev knew he would not be able to defeat the US (nuclear inferiority).
• This resulted in building the wall on August 12, 1961.

Effects on relations between East and West and on Germany

• It ended the refugee crisis.
• Khrushchev avoided war.
• It stood as a symbol of division between the US and the Soviet Union.

Castro and relations with USA and Soviet Union

• Fidel Castro led the Cuban revolution in 1959.
• Castro led a Communist government that seized US property.
• The US then banned sugar imports from Cuba.
• Cuba turned to the Soviet Union for help, and the Soviet Union provided economic aid.

Bay of Pigs

• In April 1961, a US-backed force of Cuban refugees attacked in the hope of sparking a revolution.
• Cuban people supported Castro.
• In Aug 1961, Khrushchev decided to place missiles on Cuban soil as a deterrence.

Kennedy and missile sites

• In mid-October 1962, the US discovered missile sites in Cuba.
• The US people were warned about nuclear war.

Key events of the Cuban missile Crisis

• The crisis spanned thirteen days, from October 16 to 28.
• The US decided to impose a naval blockade.
• Khrushchev stated defiance of the blockade.
• There was an exchange of letters between Khrushchev and Kennedy.
• The deal was that the Soviet Union would turn back in return for the US promise not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of US missiles in Turkey.

Impact on East-West relations

• Khrushchev's authority at home declined.
• A hotline was created in June 1963.
• The Limited Test Ban Treaty (ban all nuclear testing except underground) was enacted in Aug 1963.
• These events ushered in a Détente policy.

Long term consequences

• The Soviet Union worked to catch up with America in the arms race, and by 1965, both powers were equal.
• France decided to leave NATO.

Soviet Control of Czechoslovakia

• A 1948 coup in Czechoslovakia established a pro-Soviet communist government led by Gottwald.
• Secret police, no freedom of speech, and censorship were implemented.
• The economy was run for the benefit of the Soviet Union.
• Purges were carried out from 1949–54 against democratic politicians, military leaders, Catholics, Jews, etc.

The Prague Spring

• In 1968, Dubcek was elected as the first secretary of the Czech Communist Party. The Soviet Union trusted him to make the Czech government less unpopular.
• Dubcek believed in 'socialism with a human face'.
• Reforms were introduced in April 1968, known as the Prague Spring:
• Censorship was relaxed, and criticism of the government was allowed.
• Trade unions were given more power, and control of industry was reduced.
• More power was given to the Czech regional governments.
• Trade with the West was increased.
• There was greater freedom to travel abroad.
• The idea of multi-party elections was discussed.
• Enthusiastic reception from Czech people, but worried the SU.
• Brezhnev worried that other Warsaw Pact countries would demand similar changes.
• Romania and Yugoslavia both challenging Soviet control.

Soviet Reaction

• Brezhnev ordered Warsaw Pact troops to carry out maneuvers in Czechoslovakia, as warning to Dubcek.
• August 20, 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and ended the Prague Spring. Little opposition.
• Dubcek was arrested, sent to Moscow, and ordered to reverse his reforms.
• In 1969, Dubcek was replaced by Gustav Husak, an extreme communist who introduced a wave of oppression. 1000 Czechs arrested.

Reasons for the Soviet invasion

• Brezhnev knew the West wouldn't help Czechoslovakia.
• Dubcek's reforms offered 'dangerous' freedoms.
• Soviet satellites and republics would want the same rights.
• The future of the Warsaw Pact might be endangered.
• The Soviet safety 'buffer zone' might be under threat.
• The SU didn't want to look like it couldn't control its satellite states

Brezhnev Doctrine

• On September 26, 1968, was announced in Pravda.
• The actions of any individual communist country affected all communist countries.
• If one country's actions threatened the rest, then it was their duty to intervene.
• It made it clear that liberal reforms would not be tolerated.

The Impact of the Prague Spring and SU invasion

• In Czechoslovakia: Prague Spring ended; further oppression; strict Soviet control.
• On relations between other communist countries in Europe:
• Yugoslavia and Romania condemned SU invasion = strained relations
• Italian and French Communist Parties ended links with Moscow
• East German and Polish governments welcomed the Brezhnev Doctrine.
• Greater Soviet control of the Warsaw Pact.
• On relations between the USA and SU:
• The West expressed anger and protested
• Attempts to pass formal UN resolution condemning the invasion failed because of SU veto.
• The SU saw that the US would protest but wouldn't take direct action to oppose the SU in Europe.
• On USAs international reputation
• Other countries believed that the US was keen to criticise the SU, but was less prepared to take action.

The Thaw

• The relaxation of tensions between the SU and US after the Cuban Missile Crisis.
• It highlighted the fragility of peace and both wished to avoid nuclear war in the future.
• Mutually Assured Destruction: both the attacker and defender would be destroyed in a nuclear war = neither side wanted to strike first.
• A Hotline was established in 1963, which was a direct communication link between Moscow and Washington to enable them to talk to resolve disputes and avoid misunderstandings, rather than using weapons.
• The Limited Test Ban Treaty was drawn up by Britain, the SU, and the USA, where they wouldn't test nuclear weapons in space, above ground, or at sea (underground tests allowed), and was signed by a further 113 countries.

Detente

• Showed they were co-operating and respecting each other's rights.
• The Outer Space Treaty, 1967: stopped the arms race spreading into space and set out that no one could claim the Moon. Drawn up the USA, Britain and SU. Signed by 12 countries.
• The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968: countries divided in NWS and NNWS. Signed by Britain, US, SU and 59 other countries. NWS would work towards disarmament and NNWS would not develop nuclear weapons.
• A period of peace between two groups that were previously at war or hostile to each other. It is more permanent than a single policy.
• Ostpolitik, (German: "Eastern Policy") was a West German foreign policy begun in the late 1960s. Initiated by Willy Brandt as foreign minister and then chancellor, this policy was one of détente with Soviet-bloc countries, recognizing the East German government and expanding commercial relations with other Soviet-bloc countries.

Why did the USA want détente?

• The Vietnam War led people to question military intervention and created a desire for the US to play a less active role in international affairs.
• US Social problems: wealth inequalities and race riots 1968
• Nixon: personal ambition to reduce tension between SU and US
• He wanted to establish good relations with the People's Republic of China.

Why did the SU want détente?

• Equal nuclear power meant any discussion of arms limitation could be conducted from a position of strength
• The Vietnam War: had shown the US military could be beaten and so the SU believed it was likely to be open to more co-operation and less tension.
• Economic problems: it wanted to be able to cut spending on weapons to focus on domestic spending
• The Soviet Union was falling behind in technology and hoped that if relations were friendly, the West would be willing to share its technological advances with the SU.
• Concern about relations between the US and China: détente would mean China and the US wouldn't threaten the SU and could stop worrying about them

China's Role in Détente

• 1949: Communists took power in China.
• 1950, Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance. Agreed SU would provide economic aid worth $300m and SU would provide military assistance if China was attacked by Japan or the USA.
• China and the SU worked together to support North Korea during the Korean War
• Mao and Khrushchev did not get along during Khrushchev's visit to Beijing in 1958.
• Khrushchev publicly criticized Mao's policies in China and Mao accused Khrushchev of cowardice during the Cuban Missile Crisis and criticized the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the Brezhnev Doctrine.
• Fighting broke out between SU and Chinese soldiers along the China-Soviet border in 1969.
• April 1971, World Table Tennis Championships: The US and SU both entered teams
• Chinese team was told to avoid the US team, but there was some friendly contact between them and Mao saw an opportunity to begin talks.
• Henry Kissinger, US secretary of state, visited China and met with Chinese PM Zhou En-lai They had a series of meetings, known as ping pong diplomacy because it originated out of the table tennis matches.
• Nixon traveled to meet Mao in Beijing in Feb 1972
• They agreed the Shanghai Communique, stating that a peaceful solution should be found to the problem of Taiwan
• America agreed for the first time that there is 'only one China and that Taiwan is a part of China.’

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT1), 1972

• The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty allowed countries to have a maximum of 100 ABMs each, stationed at just two sites.
• The Interim Treaty restricted the number of ICBMs and SLBMs each country was allowed.
• The Basic Principles Agreement established rules for conducting nuclear war and tried to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons by banning the placement of missiles on the seabed.
• SALT 1 was a valuable move towards peace because it had symbolic importance and showed both superpowers wanted to reach an agreements and demonstrate their better relations publicly.
• SALT 1 had weaknesses: it was unrealistic to expect was could be avoided just because the superpowers had signed a piece of paper, it didn't cover the latest technological developments, such as MIRVs, and both sides still had enough weapons to destroy the world.
• Shortly afterwards, Nixon visited Brezhnev in Moscow and, in 1973, the Soviet leader visited Washington.
• In 1974, negotiations began for SALT2, which it hoped would resolve the matters not solved by SALT1.