Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is the most accurate description of nucleotide bases, as discussed in the text?
Which of the following is the most accurate description of nucleotide bases, as discussed in the text?
- The foundational chemical components of the genetic code, directing the body's construction and maintenance. (correct)
- Inorganic compounds that facilitate electrical activity and muscle contraction.
- Proteins responsible for catalyzing biochemical reactions essential for life.
- Complex organic molecules responsible for energy production within cells.
Human chemistry encompasses organic molecules, biochemicals, and elements. What distinguishes biochemicals from other organic molecules in this context?
Human chemistry encompasses organic molecules, biochemicals, and elements. What distinguishes biochemicals from other organic molecules in this context?
- Biochemicals are carbon-based, while other organic molecules are not.
- Biochemicals are produced by the body, whereas other organic molecules may originate from external sources. (correct)
- Biochemicals are exclusively involved in energy transformation, unlike other organic molecules.
- Biochemicals are always inorganic, contrasting with the organic nature of other organic molecules.
Several elements are vital for life, participating in chemical reactions, energy transformation, and electrical activity. According to the information, where did these elements originate?
Several elements are vital for life, participating in chemical reactions, energy transformation, and electrical activity. According to the information, where did these elements originate?
- They are created through volcanic activity and released into the atmosphere.
- Deep within the Earth's core during planetary formation.
- They are synthesized within the human body through complex biochemical processes.
- They originated in stars through nuclear fusion processes. (correct)
Consider the relationship between elements and chemical compounds. Which statement accurately describes this relationship, based on the provided information?
Consider the relationship between elements and chemical compounds. Which statement accurately describes this relationship, based on the provided information?
The structure of atoms determines the characteristics of elements. Which components of an atom are primarily responsible for defining these characteristics?
The structure of atoms determines the characteristics of elements. Which components of an atom are primarily responsible for defining these characteristics?
Why does carbon commonly bond with four hydrogen atoms?
Why does carbon commonly bond with four hydrogen atoms?
Considering the properties of water (H2O), which statement accurately describes the role of hydrogen in its formation?
Considering the properties of water (H2O), which statement accurately describes the role of hydrogen in its formation?
If an element requires three electrons to complete its valence shell, which bonding pattern is most likely?
If an element requires three electrons to complete its valence shell, which bonding pattern is most likely?
What is a direct consequence of methane's (CH4) stability and abundance on Earth?
What is a direct consequence of methane's (CH4) stability and abundance on Earth?
How does the concept of valence shells dictate the types of molecules that are commonly formed in nature?
How does the concept of valence shells dictate the types of molecules that are commonly formed in nature?
How does the mass of an object differ from its weight?
How does the mass of an object differ from its weight?
Why can't the human body create elements?
Why can't the human body create elements?
What is an element?
What is an element?
If you consume a product containing elemental iron, how is that iron utilized by your body?
If you consume a product containing elemental iron, how is that iron utilized by your body?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between elements and compounds?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between elements and compounds?
How do elements commonly exist in nature, and what implications does this have for living organisms?
How do elements commonly exist in nature, and what implications does this have for living organisms?
Why is consuming dairy products an effective way to obtain calcium?
Why is consuming dairy products an effective way to obtain calcium?
What distinguishes matter from other aspects of the universe?
What distinguishes matter from other aspects of the universe?
How does the number of protons relate to the identity of an element?
How does the number of protons relate to the identity of an element?
Consider two isotopes of the same element. Which statement accurately compares them?
Consider two isotopes of the same element. Which statement accurately compares them?
What primarily determines whether an isotope of an element will be radioactive?
What primarily determines whether an isotope of an element will be radioactive?
If an atom is electrically neutral, which of the following statements must be true?
If an atom is electrically neutral, which of the following statements must be true?
How does the periodic table organize elements, and why is this organization useful?
How does the periodic table organize elements, and why is this organization useful?
Consider two neutral atoms: one is carbon-12 ($^{12}C$) and the other is carbon-14 ($^{14}C$). Which statement correctly describes their subatomic composition?
Consider two neutral atoms: one is carbon-12 ($^{12}C$) and the other is carbon-14 ($^{14}C$). Which statement correctly describes their subatomic composition?
What is the significance of valence electrons, as presented?
What is the significance of valence electrons, as presented?
If the number of protons in an atom of an element is 11, what can be determined about this element directly from this information?
If the number of protons in an atom of an element is 11, what can be determined about this element directly from this information?
How do the planetary model and the electron cloud model differ in their representation of atomic structure?
How do the planetary model and the electron cloud model differ in their representation of atomic structure?
Consider an unstable isotope of carbon ($^{14}C$) decaying. Which of the following occurs during this process?
Consider an unstable isotope of carbon ($^{14}C$) decaying. Which of the following occurs during this process?
What distinguishes a heavy isotope from other isotopes of the same element?
What distinguishes a heavy isotope from other isotopes of the same element?
How do elements in a single column of the periodic table relate in terms of their chemical properties?
How do elements in a single column of the periodic table relate in terms of their chemical properties?
What subatomic particles contribute significantly to the mass number of an atom?
What subatomic particles contribute significantly to the mass number of an atom?
Consider an element with an atomic number of 8 and a mass number of 16. How many neutrons does it have?
Consider an element with an atomic number of 8 and a mass number of 16. How many neutrons does it have?
If an atom loses an electron, what happens to its overall charge?
If an atom loses an electron, what happens to its overall charge?
What property of radioisotopes determines the time it takes for half of a sample to decay?
What property of radioisotopes determines the time it takes for half of a sample to decay?
How do interventional radiologists use radioisotopes to treat liver tumors via radioembolization?
How do interventional radiologists use radioisotopes to treat liver tumors via radioembolization?
What is the primary function of a PET scanner in medical diagnostics?
What is the primary function of a PET scanner in medical diagnostics?
Why is understanding the behavior of electrons crucial for comprehending chemical reactions in the human body?
Why is understanding the behavior of electrons crucial for comprehending chemical reactions in the human body?
What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the first electron shell of any atom?
What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the first electron shell of any atom?
How does the number of electron shells in an atom relate to its position on the periodic table?
How does the number of electron shells in an atom relate to its position on the periodic table?
What is the significance of the valence shell in determining an atom's reactivity?
What is the significance of the valence shell in determining an atom's reactivity?
According to the octet rule, what is the optimal number of electrons in an atom's valence shell for maximum stability (excluding hydrogen and helium)?
According to the octet rule, what is the optimal number of electrons in an atom's valence shell for maximum stability (excluding hydrogen and helium)?
How might an oxygen atom, with six electrons in its valence shell, achieve stability according to the octet rule?
How might an oxygen atom, with six electrons in its valence shell, achieve stability according to the octet rule?
In the context of atomic structure and chemical reactivity, which statement accurately describes the behavior of atoms with incomplete valence shells?
In the context of atomic structure and chemical reactivity, which statement accurately describes the behavior of atoms with incomplete valence shells?
Consider an atom with 16 electrons. How many electrons would be present in its valence shell?
Consider an atom with 16 electrons. How many electrons would be present in its valence shell?
What is the relationship between the stability of an atom and its likelihood to participate in chemical reactions?
What is the relationship between the stability of an atom and its likelihood to participate in chemical reactions?
If an element is located in the third row of the periodic table, what does this indicate about its atomic structure?
If an element is located in the third row of the periodic table, what does this indicate about its atomic structure?
How does the use of radioisotopes in radioembolization differ from traditional chemotherapy in treating liver tumors?
How does the use of radioisotopes in radioembolization differ from traditional chemotherapy in treating liver tumors?
A certain element has 7 electrons in its valence shell. According to the octet rule, how would this atom most likely react with other atoms?
A certain element has 7 electrons in its valence shell. According to the octet rule, how would this atom most likely react with other atoms?
How does decreasing the volume of a space containing reactants influence the rate of a chemical reaction?
How does decreasing the volume of a space containing reactants influence the rate of a chemical reaction?
What is the fundamental mechanism by which chemicals in nature react with each other?
What is the fundamental mechanism by which chemicals in nature react with each other?
Why is the human body reliant on catalysts, such as enzymes, to sustain life?
Why is the human body reliant on catalysts, such as enzymes, to sustain life?
What is the primary role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What is the primary role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
How do catalysts, such as enzymes, increase the probability of valence shell electron interactions?
How do catalysts, such as enzymes, increase the probability of valence shell electron interactions?
What distinguishes enzymes from other types of catalysts?
What distinguishes enzymes from other types of catalysts?
What is the role of enzymes in the context of activation energy within a chemical reaction?
What is the role of enzymes in the context of activation energy within a chemical reaction?
Why are enzymes considered critical to the healthy functioning of the human body?
Why are enzymes considered critical to the healthy functioning of the human body?
During a strenuous workout, muscle cells break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy. How would this process be best classified?
During a strenuous workout, muscle cells break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy. How would this process be best classified?
Consider the synthesis of a protein from individual amino acids within a cell. What type of reaction is this, and what happens to the energy involved?
Consider the synthesis of a protein from individual amino acids within a cell. What type of reaction is this, and what happens to the energy involved?
Enzymes are crucial in facilitating biochemical reactions within the human body. How do enzymes affect the energy requirements of these reactions?
Enzymes are crucial in facilitating biochemical reactions within the human body. How do enzymes affect the energy requirements of these reactions?
How do the concepts of kinetic and potential energy apply when considering the energy dynamics within a living cell?
How do the concepts of kinetic and potential energy apply when considering the energy dynamics within a living cell?
During cellular respiration, glucose is broken down to produce ATP. What best describes the energy transformation that occurs?
During cellular respiration, glucose is broken down to produce ATP. What best describes the energy transformation that occurs?
Which of the following accurately compares endergonic and exergonic reactions in terms of energy exchange?
Which of the following accurately compares endergonic and exergonic reactions in terms of energy exchange?
Dehydration synthesis builds larger molecules from smaller ones. What type of reaction is dehydration synthesis, and what is its net effect on energy?
Dehydration synthesis builds larger molecules from smaller ones. What type of reaction is dehydration synthesis, and what is its net effect on energy?
How does understanding the principles of exergonic and endergonic reactions contribute to explaining how the human body maintains homeostasis?
How does understanding the principles of exergonic and endergonic reactions contribute to explaining how the human body maintains homeostasis?
Which of the following best explains how energy from exergonic reactions drives endergonic reactions?
Which of the following best explains how energy from exergonic reactions drives endergonic reactions?
In a chemical reaction, how do the properties of the reactants relate to the properties of the products?
In a chemical reaction, how do the properties of the reactants relate to the properties of the products?
Consider the reaction $2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O$. Which statement correctly describes this reaction?
Consider the reaction $2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O$. Which statement correctly describes this reaction?
In the exchange reaction $AB + C \rightarrow A + BC$, what must occur for the reaction to proceed?
In the exchange reaction $AB + C \rightarrow A + BC$, what must occur for the reaction to proceed?
If a chemical reaction readily proceeds in both forward and reverse directions, represented as $A + B \rightleftharpoons AB$, what can be inferred about the reaction?
If a chemical reaction readily proceeds in both forward and reverse directions, represented as $A + B \rightleftharpoons AB$, what can be inferred about the reaction?
How does increased surface area of reactants typically affect the rate of a chemical reaction, and why?
How does increased surface area of reactants typically affect the rate of a chemical reaction, and why?
Why do gases tend to react faster than liquids or solids?
Why do gases tend to react faster than liquids or solids?
How does the reactivity of elements influence the rate of chemical reactions?
How does the reactivity of elements influence the rate of chemical reactions?
Why does increasing the temperature generally speed up chemical reactions?
Why does increasing the temperature generally speed up chemical reactions?
How does the concentration of reactants affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
How does the concentration of reactants affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
In the context of chemical reactions, what best describes a 'reactant'?
In the context of chemical reactions, what best describes a 'reactant'?
Which of the following best describes the role of chemical equations?
Which of the following best describes the role of chemical equations?
Which statement accurately describes the energy changes in a decomposition reaction?
Which statement accurately describes the energy changes in a decomposition reaction?
What determines whether a chemical reaction will proceed more predictably in one direction versus another?
What determines whether a chemical reaction will proceed more predictably in one direction versus another?
How does the size of a molecule influence the rate of a chemical reaction it is involved in?
How does the size of a molecule influence the rate of a chemical reaction it is involved in?
Why is water considered indispensable to human functioning?
Why is water considered indispensable to human functioning?
How does water act as a heat sink in the human body?
How does water act as a heat sink in the human body?
What process allows the body to cool down when environmental temperatures are high, utilizing water?
What process allows the body to cool down when environmental temperatures are high, utilizing water?
What distinguishes a mixture from a chemical compound?
What distinguishes a mixture from a chemical compound?
Considering its role as a lubricant, how does water contribute to bodily functions?
Considering its role as a lubricant, how does water contribute to bodily functions?
How does water protect the brain from physical trauma?
How does water protect the brain from physical trauma?
Which property of water is most relevant to its ability to stabilize body temperature?
Which property of water is most relevant to its ability to stabilize body temperature?
If you mix salt and sand in a beaker, which of the following best describes the result?
If you mix salt and sand in a beaker, which of the following best describes the result?
Which characteristic is essential for cells to survive within the human body?
Which characteristic is essential for cells to survive within the human body?
In a liquid solution, what distinguishes the solvent from the solute?
In a liquid solution, what distinguishes the solvent from the solute?
Why is water considered the 'universal solvent' in the context of biological systems?
Why is water considered the 'universal solvent' in the context of biological systems?
What property of water molecules allows them to readily dissolve ionic and polar covalent compounds?
What property of water molecules allows them to readily dissolve ionic and polar covalent compounds?
What critical distinction separates colloids from solutions?
What critical distinction separates colloids from solutions?
How does a suspension differ from a colloid or a solution?
How does a suspension differ from a colloid or a solution?
Which process involves the creation or consumption of water molecules?
Which process involves the creation or consumption of water molecules?
What defines a salt in a chemical context?
What defines a salt in a chemical context?
Why are ions, formed from the dissociation of salts, considered electrolytes?
Why are ions, formed from the dissociation of salts, considered electrolytes?
How do acids alter the properties of solutions?
How do acids alter the properties of solutions?
How would you prepare a 1M solution of glucose ($C_6H_{12}O_6$), given that its molecular weight is approximately 180.156g?
How would you prepare a 1M solution of glucose ($C_6H_{12}O_6$), given that its molecular weight is approximately 180.156g?
If a patient's blood glucose level is measured at 150 mg/dL, how does this compare to the average healthy adult level?
If a patient's blood glucose level is measured at 150 mg/dL, how does this compare to the average healthy adult level?
What aspect of certain diseases can cause blood cells to clump together, leading to a rapid sedimentation rate?
What aspect of certain diseases can cause blood cells to clump together, leading to a rapid sedimentation rate?
In the context of solutions, colloids, and suspensions, which of the following contains the largest solute particles?
In the context of solutions, colloids, and suspensions, which of the following contains the largest solute particles?
Considering Avogadro's number, what is consistent about one mole of any substance?
Considering Avogadro's number, what is consistent about one mole of any substance?
How does a buffer system respond when the pH of a bodily fluid slightly decreases below 7.35?
How does a buffer system respond when the pH of a bodily fluid slightly decreases below 7.35?
What is the primary mechanism by which bicarbonate (HCO3–) reduces the acidity of food mixed with hydrochloric acid in the digestive system?
What is the primary mechanism by which bicarbonate (HCO3–) reduces the acidity of food mixed with hydrochloric acid in the digestive system?
How does hyperventilation, often associated with anxiety, lead to respiratory alkalosis?
How does hyperventilation, often associated with anxiety, lead to respiratory alkalosis?
Why is maintaining blood pH within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45 critical for human health?
Why is maintaining blood pH within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45 critical for human health?
What is the mathematical relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration [H+]?
What is the mathematical relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration [H+]?
Why is a solitary proton (H+) highly likely to participate in chemical reactions?
Why is a solitary proton (H+) highly likely to participate in chemical reactions?
In the context of acid-base chemistry, what distinguishes a strong acid from a weak acid?
In the context of acid-base chemistry, what distinguishes a strong acid from a weak acid?
What is the fundamental difference between how strong bases and weak bases affect a solution's pH?
What is the fundamental difference between how strong bases and weak bases affect a solution's pH?
How does the pH scale relate to the acidity or alkalinity of a solution?
How does the pH scale relate to the acidity or alkalinity of a solution?
What happens to the pH of blood when carbon dioxide (CO2) is constantly released into the bloodstream by body cells?
What happens to the pH of blood when carbon dioxide (CO2) is constantly released into the bloodstream by body cells?
In cases of severe diarrhea, how does the loss of bicarbonate (HCO3–) contribute to acidosis?
In cases of severe diarrhea, how does the loss of bicarbonate (HCO3–) contribute to acidosis?
How do diuretics contribute to metabolic alkalosis?
How do diuretics contribute to metabolic alkalosis?
What is the primary function of buffers in the human body?
What is the primary function of buffers in the human body?
Why does poorly managed diabetes lead to metabolic acidosis?
Why does poorly managed diabetes lead to metabolic acidosis?
What is the primary cause of respiratory acidosis?
What is the primary cause of respiratory acidosis?
Carbon's ability to form diverse organic compounds is primarily due to which characteristic?
Carbon's ability to form diverse organic compounds is primarily due to which characteristic?
How do functional groups contribute to the properties of organic molecules?
How do functional groups contribute to the properties of organic molecules?
Which statement accurately describes hydrocarbons?
Which statement accurately describes hydrocarbons?
How is the octet rule relevant to carbon's bonding behavior in organic compounds?
How is the octet rule relevant to carbon's bonding behavior in organic compounds?
What distinguishes a macromolecule from a monomer?
What distinguishes a macromolecule from a monomer?
What is a 'carbon skeleton' in the context of organic molecules?
What is a 'carbon skeleton' in the context of organic molecules?
Which of the following is NOT a functional group important in human physiology?
Which of the following is NOT a functional group important in human physiology?
Given carbon's bonding behavior and the octet rule, how many other atoms does a carbon atom typically bond with?
Given carbon's bonding behavior and the octet rule, how many other atoms does a carbon atom typically bond with?
How does hydrolysis facilitate the breakdown of polymers into monomers?
How does hydrolysis facilitate the breakdown of polymers into monomers?
If a newly discovered carbohydrate molecule is found to have the chemical formula $C_6H_{12}O_6$, how would it be classified?
If a newly discovered carbohydrate molecule is found to have the chemical formula $C_6H_{12}O_6$, how would it be classified?
What chemical process directly links two monosaccharides to form a disaccharide?
What chemical process directly links two monosaccharides to form a disaccharide?
Why is glucose uniquely important for nerve cells and red blood cells?
Why is glucose uniquely important for nerve cells and red blood cells?
How does the presence of oxygen affect ATP production during glucose breakdown?
How does the presence of oxygen affect ATP production during glucose breakdown?
What property primarily accounts for lipids' inability to dissolve in water?
What property primarily accounts for lipids' inability to dissolve in water?
How are triglycerides formed, and what molecules are involved in their synthesis?
How are triglycerides formed, and what molecules are involved in their synthesis?
What structural characteristic differentiates saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
What structural characteristic differentiates saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
Why do monounsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature?
Why do monounsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature?
What is a key difference between polysaccharides and disaccharides in terms of their structure?
What is a key difference between polysaccharides and disaccharides in terms of their structure?
What is the role of oxygen in the conversion of glucose to ATP?
What is the role of oxygen in the conversion of glucose to ATP?
How are trans fatty acids typically produced, and why are they considered detrimental to health?
How are trans fatty acids typically produced, and why are they considered detrimental to health?
What characterizes an emulsion, in the context of lipids and water?
What characterizes an emulsion, in the context of lipids and water?
How does dehydration synthesis contribute to the formation of triglycerides?
How does dehydration synthesis contribute to the formation of triglycerides?
What key feature distinguishes omega-3 fatty acids from other unsaturated fatty acids?
What key feature distinguishes omega-3 fatty acids from other unsaturated fatty acids?
How do triglycerides contribute to the body's functions during periods of rest?
How do triglycerides contribute to the body's functions during periods of rest?
In what way does the structure of a phospholipid differ from that of a triglyceride?
In what way does the structure of a phospholipid differ from that of a triglyceride?
Why is cholesterol considered amphipathic?
Why is cholesterol considered amphipathic?
How do prostaglandins affect the body, and what is their relationship to NSAIDs?
How do prostaglandins affect the body, and what is their relationship to NSAIDs?
What structural component is unique to proteins compared to carbohydrates and lipids?
What structural component is unique to proteins compared to carbohydrates and lipids?
How do the variable side chains (R-groups) of amino acids influence protein structure and function?
How do the variable side chains (R-groups) of amino acids influence protein structure and function?
What is the process by which amino acids are linked together to form a protein polymer, and what type of bond is formed?
What is the process by which amino acids are linked together to form a protein polymer, and what type of bond is formed?
Which of the following best describes the role of lipoproteins?
Which of the following best describes the role of lipoproteins?
How do phospholipids contribute to the structure of cell membranes?
How do phospholipids contribute to the structure of cell membranes?
What is the role of cholesterol in the production of bile acids?
What is the role of cholesterol in the production of bile acids?
How does the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids impact prostaglandin production and cardiovascular health?
How does the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids impact prostaglandin production and cardiovascular health?
Considering the chemical composition of proteins, why are they considered excellent buffers in the body?
Considering the chemical composition of proteins, why are they considered excellent buffers in the body?
What role do the nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) have with dietary fat?
What role do the nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) have with dietary fat?
What is an example of a protein that provides structural support?
What is an example of a protein that provides structural support?
What is the unique characteristic of the amino acids cysteine and methionine?
What is the unique characteristic of the amino acids cysteine and methionine?
What distinguishes polypeptides from proteins, based on amino acid count?
What distinguishes polypeptides from proteins, based on amino acid count?
If an essential amino acid is missing from the amino acid pool, what is the most likely consequence?
If an essential amino acid is missing from the amino acid pool, what is the most likely consequence?
Which level of protein structure is most directly determined by the sequence of amino acids?
Which level of protein structure is most directly determined by the sequence of amino acids?
What type of bond primarily stabilizes the alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet structures in proteins?
What type of bond primarily stabilizes the alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet structures in proteins?
Disulfide bonds contribute to which level of protein structure?
Disulfide bonds contribute to which level of protein structure?
Hemoglobin consists of multiple polypeptide subunits. What level of protein structure does this exemplify?
Hemoglobin consists of multiple polypeptide subunits. What level of protein structure does this exemplify?
What is the most direct consequence of protein denaturation?
What is the most direct consequence of protein denaturation?
Which of the following best describes fibrous proteins?
Which of the following best describes fibrous proteins?
How does the shape of globular proteins relate to their function?
How does the shape of globular proteins relate to their function?
Which characteristic is responsible for the specificity of an enzyme?
Which characteristic is responsible for the specificity of an enzyme?
What is the significance of induced fit in enzymatic reactions?
What is the significance of induced fit in enzymatic reactions?
How does an enzyme affect the activation energy of a chemical reaction?
How does an enzyme affect the activation energy of a chemical reaction?
If a protein in red blood cells is responsible for transporting oxygen to the body tissues, to which class does it belong?
If a protein in red blood cells is responsible for transporting oxygen to the body tissues, to which class does it belong?
What is the role of collagen found in bones?
What is the role of collagen found in bones?
What dictates an enzyme's ability to catalyze only one type of reaction?
What dictates an enzyme's ability to catalyze only one type of reaction?
How does the binding of a substrate to an enzyme affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
How does the binding of a substrate to an enzyme affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Besides building and repairing muscle tissue, what other critical roles do proteins fulfill in the human body?
Besides building and repairing muscle tissue, what other critical roles do proteins fulfill in the human body?
Under what circumstances does the body utilize proteins for energy, and what is the consequence of this process?
Under what circumstances does the body utilize proteins for energy, and what is the consequence of this process?
What structural feature distinguishes purines from pyrimidines?
What structural feature distinguishes purines from pyrimidines?
How do genes in DNA function to direct protein synthesis?
How do genes in DNA function to direct protein synthesis?
What role does messenger RNA (mRNA) play in protein synthesis?
What role does messenger RNA (mRNA) play in protein synthesis?
Why is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) considered a high-energy compound?
Why is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) considered a high-energy compound?
What occurs during the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP?
What occurs during the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP?
What is the process of phosphorylation and why is it important?
What is the process of phosphorylation and why is it important?
How does the structure of RNA differ from that of DNA?
How does the structure of RNA differ from that of DNA?
Besides the structure, how do DNA and RNA differ functionally?
Besides the structure, how do DNA and RNA differ functionally?
How do proteins contribute to fluid balance within the body?
How do proteins contribute to fluid balance within the body?
What is the immediate result of removing a phosphate group from ATP?
What is the immediate result of removing a phosphate group from ATP?
How does an enzyme affect a chemical reaction after binding to a substrate?
How does an enzyme affect a chemical reaction after binding to a substrate?
What distinguishes glycoproteins and proteoglycans from other types of proteins?
What distinguishes glycoproteins and proteoglycans from other types of proteins?
Which of the following activities requires explicit permission from OpenStax?
Which of the following activities requires explicit permission from OpenStax?
Under what conditions are you allowed to modify the book?
Under what conditions are you allowed to modify the book?
Which components associated with OpenStax are not subject to the Creative Commons license?
Which components associated with OpenStax are not subject to the Creative Commons license?
If you want to include a figure from the book in your presentation, what is the correct procedure?
If you want to include a figure from the book in your presentation, what is the correct procedure?
What is the main restriction regarding the use of the book's content in AI development?
What is the main restriction regarding the use of the book's content in AI development?
Flashcards
Chemical Elements
Chemical Elements
The simplest, most basic material components of the human body.
Nucleotide Bases
Nucleotide Bases
Chemicals that form the foundation of the genetic code, instructing how to build and maintain the human body.
Human Chemistry
Human Chemistry
Carbon-based molecules and chemicals produced by the body.
Atoms
Atoms
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Key Elements for Life
Key Elements for Life
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What is matter?
What is matter?
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What is mass?
What is mass?
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What is weight?
What is weight?
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What are elements?
What are elements?
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What defines an element?
What defines an element?
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Why is calcium important?
Why is calcium important?
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What is a compound?
What is a compound?
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What is Glucose?
What is Glucose?
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What is H2O?
What is H2O?
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What is a valence shell?
What is a valence shell?
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What is methane?
What is methane?
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What are covalent bonds?
What are covalent bonds?
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Why is it called hydrogen?
Why is it called hydrogen?
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Proton (p+)
Proton (p+)
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Neutron
Neutron
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Electron (e-)
Electron (e-)
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Element
Element
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Atomic Number
Atomic Number
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Mass Number
Mass Number
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Periodic Table
Periodic Table
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Isotope
Isotope
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Heavy Isotope
Heavy Isotope
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Radioactive Isotope
Radioactive Isotope
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Valence Electrons
Valence Electrons
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Elements Properties
Elements Properties
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Compund ratio
Compund ratio
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Neutral Atom
Neutral Atom
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Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes
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Half-life
Half-life
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Interventional Radiologists
Interventional Radiologists
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Radioembolization
Radioembolization
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Valence Shell
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Stable Atom
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Reactive Atom
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Octet Rule
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Electron Shell
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Atom Reactivity
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Tumor Radioembolization
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PET Scan
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Metabolically active tissue
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PET cancer detection
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Metabolism
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Anabolic Reactions
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Catabolic Reactions
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Kinetic Energy
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Potential Energy
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Chemical Energy
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Exergonic Reactions
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Endergonic Reactions
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Reactant
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Product
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Law of Conservation of Mass
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Synthesis Reaction
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Decomposition Reaction
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Exchange Reaction
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Reversible Reaction Direction
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Surface Area & Reaction Rate
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Temperature's Impact on Reaction Rate
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Concentration & Reaction Rate
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Molecular Size & Element Types
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What is a reactant?
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Reaction Speed Factors
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Chemical Reactions
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Heat's Role in Reactions
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Catalyst
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How Catalysts Work
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Enzymes
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Activation Energy
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Enzymes' Bodily Role
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Chemistry of Human Life
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Inorganic Compounds
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Organic compound
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Water's Role in the Body
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Water as a Lubricant
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Water as a Cushion
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Water as a Heat Sink
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Mixture (Chemistry)
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Room Air Composition
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Liquid Solution
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Solvent Definition
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Solute Definition
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Homogeneous Solutions
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"Universal Solvent"
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Hydrophilic Compounds
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Hydrophobic Compounds
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Solute Concentration
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Molarity Definition
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Colloid Definition
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Suspension Definition
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Sedimentation Definition
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Water-Related Reactions
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Salt Definition
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Hydrogen Ion (H+)
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Strong Acids
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Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
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Weak Acids
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Base
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Hydroxyl Ions (OH-)
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Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
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pH
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Acidic
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Basic (Alkaline)
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Acidosis
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Alkalosis
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Blood pH Homeostasis
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Four Major Organic Compounds
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Carbon's Versatility
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Carbon Skeleton
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Hydrocarbons
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Functional Group
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Key Functional Groups
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Macromolecule
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Monomers
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Polymers
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Dehydration Synthesis
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Hydrolysis
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Carbohydrates
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Monosaccharides
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Disaccharides
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Polysaccharides
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Hexose Sugars
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Pentose Sugars
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Glycosidic Bond
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Common Disaccharides
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
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Lipids
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Triglyceride
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Lipoproteins
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Phospholipid
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Steroid (Sterol)
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Cholesterol
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Prostaglandins
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Protein
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Amino Acid
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Peptide Bond
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Peptide
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Glycolipids
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Body proteins
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Amino acid structure
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Peptide Bond
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Phospholipid properties
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Substrate
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Enzyme-Substrate Complex
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Hormones
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Proteins and Fluid Balance
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Glycoproteins/Proteoglycans
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Protein as Energy Source
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Nucleotide
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DNA
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RNA
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Purines
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Pyrimidines
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Double Helix
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mRNA
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ATP
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Polypeptides
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Essential Amino Acids
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Amino Acid Pool
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Primary Structure (Protein)
Primary Structure (Protein)
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Secondary Structure (Protein)
Secondary Structure (Protein)
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Tertiary Structure (Protein)
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Quaternary Structure (Protein)
Quaternary Structure (Protein)
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Disulfide Bond
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Denaturation (Protein)
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Fibrous Proteins
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Globular Proteins
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Active Sites
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Specificity
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Induced Fit
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Calcium Homeostasis
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Skeletal System Role
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Creative Commons Attribution License
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OpenStax
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Study Notes
- Human chemistry focuses on compounds crucial for the body's structure and function.
- These compounds are generally categorized as either inorganic or organic.
- Inorganic compounds essential to life include water, salts, acids, and bases.
- Organic compounds are typically groups of carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen, usually oxygen, and often other elements.
- Organic compounds are found throughout the world, including soils, seas, commercial products, and within every cell of the human body.
- The four types of organic compounds most important to human structure and function are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Water in the Human Body
- Water constitutes up to 70% of an adult's body weight.
- Water exists both within cells and between cells in tissues and organs.
- Water is vital for human functioning due to its multiple roles.
- The smallest, most fundamental material components of the human body are basic chemical elements.
- Chemicals called nucleotide bases are the foundation of the genetic code.
- Genetic code contains the instructions on how to build and maintain the human body from conception through old age.
- There are about three billion nucleotide base pairs in human DNA.
- Human chemistry includes organic molecules (carbon-based) and biochemicals (those produced by the body).
- Life cannot exist without many of the elements that are part of the earth.
- Elements contribute to chemical reactions, energy transformation, electrical activity, and muscle contraction.
- Examples include phosphorus, carbon, sodium, and calcium, which originated in stars.
- These elements can form both inorganic and organic chemical compounds important to life, including water, glucose, and proteins.
- The structure of atoms determines the characteristics of elements based on the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the atoms.
Matter and Elements
- Matter is any substance in the universe that occupies space and has mass.
- Mass refers to the quantity of matter in an object and remains constant regardless of location.
- Weight is the measure of mass as affected by gravity.
- Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means.
- The human body cannot create elements and must obtain them from the environment.
- Calcium is an essential element for strengthening bones obtained through dietary sources.
Compounds and Atoms
- Compounds are substances composed of two or more elements joined by chemical bonds.
- Glucose is a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, always in the same relative amounts.
- An atom is the smallest unit of an element retaining its unique properties.
- Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Protons and neutrons contribute to the mass of the atom, while the number of protons defines the element.
- Electrons "spin" around the nucleus and carry a negative charge.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
- The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, uniquely identifying the element.
- An element's mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
- The periodic table arranges elements by atomic number and provides information such as chemical symbol and mass number.
- Elements in the same column of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons that can participate in chemical reactions.
Isotopes and Radioisotopes
- Isotopes are different forms of an element distinguished by different numbers of neutrons.
- A heavy isotope contains more than the usual number of neutrons and tends to be unstable.
- Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have unstable nuclei that decay, emitting subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy.
- Radioisotopes have different half-lives, representing the time for half of a sample to decay.
- Controlled use of radioisotopes has advanced medical diagnosis and treatment, such as radioembolization and positron emission tomography (PET).
- PET scans use radioactive glucose to identify metabolically active tissues, useful in detecting cancerous masses.
Electron Shells and Valence Shells
- Atoms react with each other to form and break down complex substances.
- Electrons tend to stay within certain regions of space called electron shells, which encircle the nucleus at distinct energy levels.
- Atoms in the human body have one to five electron shells, with each shell holding eight electrons except the first, which holds two.
- The tendency of an atom to participate in chemical reactions is governed by the number of electrons in its valence shell (outermost shell).
- Atoms are most stable when their valence shell is full; otherwise, they are reactive and will form bonds to fill the valence shell.
- The octet rule states that atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight electrons in their valence shell (except hydrogen and helium).
- Carbon commonly links with four hydrogen atoms to form methane, while oxygen interacts with two hydrogen atoms to form water.
- Carbon atoms have four electrons in their valence shell.
- Carbon atoms do not complete their valence shells by donating or accepting four electrons; they share electrons via covalent bonds.
- Carbon atoms often share with other carbon atoms, forming a long carbon chain referred to as a carbon skeleton.
- Carbon atoms tend to share electrons with a variety of other elements, one of which is always hydrogen, forming hydrocarbons.
- Carbon may share electrons with oxygen or nitrogen or other atoms in a particular region of an organic compound.
- The atoms to which carbon atoms bond may also be part of a functional group.
- A functional group is a group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds, tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit.
- Five functional groups are important in human physiology which included hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, methyl and phosphate groups.
- Carbon's affinity for covalent bonding means that many distinct and relatively stable organic molecules readily form larger, more complex molecules.
- Any large molecule is referred to as macromolecule.
- Some macromolecules are made up of several "copies" of single units called monomers.
- Monomers link by covalent bonds to form long polymers.
- Monomers form polymers by engaging in dehydration synthesis, which results in the release of a molecule of water.
- Polymers are split into monomers by hydrolysis, where the bonds between their monomers are broken via the donation of a molecule of water.
Metabolism and Energy
- Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions maintaining an organism's health and life.
- Anabolic reactions form larger molecules from smaller ones.
- Catabolic reactions break bonds in larger molecules to release smaller molecules or atoms.
- Chemical reactions need enough energy for matter to collide with the precision and force for bonds to break and form.
- Kinetic energy powers matter in motion.
- Potential energy is the energy of position or structure.
- Potential energy is stored in bonds between atoms and molecules in the human body.
- Chemical energy is potential energy stored in chemical bonds.
- Chemical energy is invested when bonds form and released when they break, converting from one form to another.
Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions
- Exergonic reactions release more energy than they absorb, like the catabolism of food that releases heat.
- Endergonic reactions absorb more energy than they release, requiring energy input, often from exergonic reactions.
Reactants and Products
- Chemical reactions begin with reactants and produce products.
- The law of conservation of mass governs chemical reactions, so matter is neither created nor destroyed.
- Chemical equations show how reactants become products, using arrows to indicate the reaction's direction.
Synthesis, Decomposition, and Exchange Reactions
- Synthesis reactions join separate components: A + B → AB
- Decomposition reactions break down larger components: AB → A + B
- Exchange reactions involve both synthesis and decomposition: A + BC → AB + C or AB + CD → AC + BD
- Reactions can be reversible under the right conditions: A + BC ⇄ AB + C
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates
- A greater surface area of reactants leads to quicker interaction.
- Gases react faster than liquids or solids.
- Smaller molecules react faster than larger ones.
- Highly reactive elements speed up reactions.
- Higher temperatures increase reaction rates.
- Increased particle concentration speeds up reaction.
Catalysts and Enzymes
- Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions without changing themselves.
- Enzymes, made of protein or RNA, are critical catalysts in the human body.
- Enzymes lower the activation energy needed to break bonds in reactants, assisting with processes like food breakdown.
Water's Role as a Lubricant and Protectant
- Water is a major component of lubricating fluids in the body.
- Synovial fluid lubricates body joints.
- Pleural fluid aids lung expansion and recoil during breathing.
- Watery fluids facilitate food movement in the digestive tract.
- Water ensures friction-free movement of abdominal organs.
- Water protects cells and organs from physical trauma.
- It cushions the brain within the skull.
- Water protects the delicate nerve tissue of the eyes.
- It also cushions a developing fetus in the womb.
Water as a Heat Sink
- Water functions as a heat sink by absorbing and dissipating heat without significant temperature increase.
- Water absorbs heat generated by chemical reactions.
- It helps keep the body cool when environmental temperature rises.
- Warm blood from the body's core flows to blood vessels under the skin, transferring heat to the environment.
- Sweat glands release warm water, which evaporates and carries away heat.
- Cooler blood then circulates back to the body core.
Mixtures and Their Types
- A mixture is a combination of two or more substances, each retaining its chemical identity.
- Substances in a mixture are not chemically bonded into a new compound.
- Room air is a gaseous mixture containing nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide.
- Liquid mixtures, crucial for the body, include solutions, colloids, and suspensions.
- Cells must be kept moist in a water-based solution to survive.
Solutions
- A liquid solution consists of a solvent dissolving a solute.
- Solutions are homogeneous, with solute molecules evenly distributed.
- Water is considered the "universal solvent".
- Water is the most abundant solvent in the body, with most chemical reactions occurring among compounds dissolved in it.
- Water readily dissolves ionic and polar covalent compounds due to its polar molecules; these compounds are hydrophilic.
- Nonpolar molecules do not easily dissolve in water and are hydrophobic.
Concentration and Molarity
- The concentration of a solute is the number of particles of that solute in a given space.
- Glucose concentration in human blood is measured in mg/dL, averaging about 100 mg/dL in healthy adults.
- Molarity measures solute concentration in moles (M) per liter (L).
- A mole of an element is its atomic weight in grams.
- A mole of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of its components (molecular weight).
- Molecular weight of glucose (C6H12O6) is approximately 180.156g.
- A molar (1M) solution contains one mole of solute per liter of solution.
- One mole of any substance contains Avogadro's number of particles which is 6.02 × 1023.
- Many substances in blood and tissue are measured in millimoles (mM).
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrate means "hydrated carbon".
- Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio.
- The chemical formula for a "generic" molecule of carbohydrate is (CH2O)n.
- Carbohydrates are referred to as saccharides, a word meaning "sugars."
- Three forms of saccharides are important in the body, these are monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
- A monosaccharide is a monomer of carbohydrates.
- Five monosaccharides are important in the body.
- Three of these are the hexose sugars, each containing six atoms of carbon like glucose, fructose, and galactose.
- The remaining monosaccharides are the two pentose sugars which contains five atoms of carbon such as the ribose and deoxyribose.
Disaccharides
- A disaccharide is a pair of monosaccharides.
- Disaccharides are formed via dehydration synthesis; the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond.
- Three disaccharides are important to humans, which include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
- In the digestive tract, disaccharides are split into their component monosaccharides via hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides
- Are the polymers of saccharides
- Polysaccharides can consist of hundreds to thousands of monomers.
How the body obtains carbohydrates
- The body obtains carbohydrates from plant-based foods, such as grains, fruits, legumes, and vegetables, although lactose is found in dairy products.
- All body cells can use glucose for fuel
- Nerve cells (neurons) in the brain, spinal cord, and through the peripheral nervous system, as well as red blood cells, can use only glucose for fuel.
- In the breakdown of glucose for energy, molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are produced.
- ATP is composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups.
- ATP releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are broken, thus supplies ready energy to the cell.
- More ATP is produced in the presence of oxygen (O2) than in pathways that do not use oxygen.
- Carbohydrates are present in very small amounts in cells' structure.
- Some carbohydrate molecules bind with proteins to produce glycoproteins, and others combine with lipids to produce glycolipids, both of which are found in the membrane that encloses the contents of body cells.
Lipids
- A lipid is one of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of hydrocarbons.
- Their nonpolar hydrocarbons make all lipids hydrophobic.
- In water, lipids do not form a true solution, but they may form an emulsion, which is the term for a mixture of solutions that do not mix well.
- A triglyceride is one of the most common dietary lipid groups, and the type found most abundantly in body tissues.
- This compound, which is commonly referred to as a fat, is formed from the synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids.
- Triglycerides form via dehydration synthesis.
Glycerol and Synthesis
- Glycerol gives up hydrogen atoms from its hydroxyl groups at each bond.
- The carboxyl group on each fatty acid chain gives up a hydroxyl group.
- A total of three water molecules are thereby released.
Fatty acids
- Fatty acid chains that have no double carbon bonds anywhere along their length are called saturated fatty acids.
- Saturated fatty acids contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
- Saturated fatty acids are straight, rigid chains that pack tightly together and are solid or semi-solid at room temperature.
- Fatty acids with one double carbon bond are kinked at that bond; these monounsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature.
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double carbon bonds and are also liquid at room temperature.
- A diet high in unsaturated fatty acids is thought to reduce the risk heart disease.
- Trans fats are created from unsaturated fatty acids when chemically treated to produce partially hydrogenated fats.
- Trans fatty acids found in some processed foods are thought to be even more harmful to the heart and blood vessels than saturated fatty acids.
- Omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids stimulate the production of certain prostaglandins that help regulate aspects of blood pressure and inflammation, and thereby reduce the risk for heart disease
Biological roles of triglycerides
- Triglycerides are a major fuel source for the body.
- When you are resting or asleep, a majority of the energy used to keep you alive is derived from triglycerides stored in your fat (adipose) tissues.
- Triglycerides also fuel long, slow physical activity such as gardening or hiking, and contribute a modest percentage of energy for vigorous physical activity.
- Dietary fat assists the absorption and transport of the nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
- Stored body fat protects and cushions the body's bones and internal organs, and acts as insulation to retin body heat.
Further Biological roles of Lipids
- Fatty acids are also components of glycolipids, which are sugar-fat compounds found in the cell membrane.
- Lipoproteins are compounds in which the hydrophobic triglycerides are packaged in protein envelopes for transport in body fluids.
- Phospholipids are a bond between the glycerol component of a lipid and a phosphorous molecule.
- Instead of having three fatty acids, a phospholipid is generated from a diglyceride, a glycerol with just two fatty acid chains
- A phospholipid has hydrophobic tails containing neutral fatty acids and hydrophilic heads containing the charged phosphate groups and nitrogen atom.
- The third binding site on the glycerol is taken up by the phosphate group, which in turn is attached to a polar "head" region of the molecule.
- A steroid compound, also referred to as a sterol, has as its foundation a set of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules.
- Cholesterol is an important component of bile acids, compounds that help emulsify dietary fats and is synthesized by the liver in humans and animals.
- Cholesterol is also a building block of many hormones, signaling molecules that the body releases to regulate processes at distant sites.
- Cholesterol molecules are found in the cell membrane, where their hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions help regulate the flow of substances into and out of the cell.
- Prostaglandins are a group of signaling molecules derived from unsaturated fatty acids.
- Prostaglandins also sensitize nerves to pain.
Proteins
- A protein is an organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
- Proteins include the keratin in the epidermis of skin, the collagen found in the dermis of skin and the digestive enzymes and antibodies.
- All proteins also contain nitrogen (N), and many contain sulfur (S), in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Proteins are polymers made up of nitrogen-containing monomers called amino acids.
Amino Acids
- An amino acid is a molecule composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, together with a variable side chain.
- Just 20 different amino acids contribute to many of the proteins important in human structure and function.
- All amino acids contain both an acid (the carboxyl group) and a base (the amino group).
- They make excellent buffers, helping the body regulate acid–base balance.
- What distinguishes the 20 amino acids from one another is their variable group, which is referred to as a side chain or an R-group.
- Amino acids join via dehydration synthesis to form protein polymers.
- The unique bond holding amino acids together is called a peptide bond.
- A peptide bond is a covalent bond between two amino acids that forms by dehydration synthesis.
- A peptide, in fact, is a very short chain of amino acids.
- Strands containing fewer than about 100 amino acids are generally referred to as polypeptides rather than proteins.
- The body is able to synthesize most of the amino acids from components of other molecules; however, nine cannot be synthesized and have to be consumed in the diet, these are the essential amino acids.
- Free amino acids available for protein construction are said to reside in the amino acid pool within cells.
Protein Structures
- A protein's shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids of which it is made, referred to as the primary structure.
- Although some polypeptides exist as linear chains, most are twisted or folded into more complex secondary structures that form when bonding occurs between amino acids with different properties at different regions of the polypeptide.
- The most common secondary structure is a spiral called an alpha-helix, that maintains a stable shape with help from hydrogen bonds.
- A polypeptide chain can form a beta-pleated sheet, in which hydrogen bonds form bridges between different regions of a single polypeptide that has folded back upon itself, or between two or more adjacent polypeptide chains.
- The secondary structure of proteins further folds into a compact three-dimensional shape, referred to as the protein's tertiary structure.
- Often, two or more separate polypeptides bond to form an even larger protein with a quaternary structure.
- When they are exposed to extreme heat, acids, bases, and certain other substances, proteins will denature.
- Denaturation is a change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means.
- Denatured proteins lose their functional shape and are no longer able to carry out their jobs.
- Fibrous proteins are strong and durable and typically hydrophobic.
- Globular proteins are globes or spheres that tend to be highly reactive and are hydrophilic.
- Enzymes, introduced earlier as protein catalysts, are examples of globular proteins.
Enzymes
- Enzymatic reactions begin when substrates, bind to the enzyme on regions of the enzyme known as active sites.
- Any given enzyme catalyzes just one type of chemical reaction called specificity.
- As an enzyme binds to its substrate(s), the enzyme structure changes slightly to find the best fit between the transition state and the active site, called induced fit.
- Binding of a substrate produces an enzyme–substrate complex.
- The enzyme then releases the product(s), and resumes its original shape.
- certain proteins act as hormones, chemical messengers that help regulate body functions.
- The basic and acidic components enable proteins to function as buffers in maintaining acid–base balance, and also help regulate fluid–electrolyte balance.
- Like lipids, proteins can bind with carbohydrates to produce glycoproteins or proteoglycans, both of which have many functions in the body.
- The body can use proteins for energy when carbohydrate and fat intake is inadequate.
Nucleotides
- The fourth type of organic compound important to human structure and function are the nucleotides
- A nucleotide is one of a class of organic compounds composed of three subunits: a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
- Nucleotides can be assembled into nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or the energy compound adenosine triphosphate.
- The nucleic acids differ in their type of pentose sugar.
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is nucleotide that stores genetic information and contains deoxyribose, one phosphate group and one nitrogen-containing base.
- The "choices" of base for DNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a ribose-containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic code as protein
- RNA contains ribose, one phosphate group, and one nitrogen-containing base, but the "choices" of base for RNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil.
- The nitrogen-containing bases adenine and guanine are classified as purines with a double ring structure.
- The bases cytosine, thymine (found in DNA only) and uracil (found in RNA only) are pyramidines with a single ring structure.
- Bonds formed by dehydration synthesis between the pentose sugar of one nucleic acid monomer and the phosphate group of another form a "backbone," from which the components' nitrogen-containing bases protrude.
- In DNA, two such backbones attach at their protruding bases via hydrogen bonds, twisting to form a double helix.
- The sequence of nitrogen-containing bases within a strand of DNA form the genes that act as a molecular code instructing cells in the assembly of amino acids into proteins.
- Humans have almost 22, 000 genes in their DNA, locked up in the 46 chromosomes inside the nucleus of each cell.
- In contrast, RNA consists of a single strand of sugar-phosphate backbone studded with bases.
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is created during protein synthesis to carry the genetic instructions from the DNA to the cell's protein manufacturing plants in the cytoplasm, the ribosomes.
- The nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups.
- ATP is classified as a high energy compound because the two covalent bonds linking its three phosphates store a significant amount of potential energy.
- In the body, the energy released from these high energy bonds helps fuel the body's activities, from muscle contraction to the transport of substances in and out of cells to anabolic chemical reactions.
- When a phosphate group is cleaved from ATP, the products are adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
- Removal of a second phosphate leaves adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and two phosphate groups.
- Cells can also transfer a phosphate group from ATP to another organic compound by Phosphorylation.
Colloids
- A colloid is a mixture similar to a heavy solution.
- Solute particles are tiny clumps of molecules large enough to make the mixture opaque.
- Examples of colloids include milk and cream.
- Thyroid hormone is stored as a thick protein mixture called a colloid in the thyroid glands.
Suspensions
- A suspension is a liquid mixture where a heavier substance is temporarily suspended but settles out over time (sedimentation).
- Sedimentation is seen in the blood test that measures sedimentation rate (sed rate).
- Rapid sedimentation of blood cells can indicate certain diseases causing blood cells to clump.
Salts
- A salt is a substance that dissociates into ions other than H+ or OH– when dissolved in water.
- This distinguishes salts from acids and bases.
- A typical salt, NaCl, dissociates completely in water.
- Water molecules attract the negative chloride and positive sodium ions, pulling them apart.
- Nonpolar and polar covalently bonded compounds break apart into molecules in solution, salts dissociate into ions.
- These ions are electrolytes, that can conduct an electrical current in solution, critical for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.
- Bile salts help break apart dietary fats, and calcium phosphate salts form the mineral portion of teeth and bones.
Acids
- Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
- A hydrogen ion is simply a proton, highly likely to participate in chemical reactions.
- Strong acids release all their H+ in solution and ionize completely (e.g., hydrochloric acid, HCl, in the stomach).
- Weak acids do not ionize completely (e.g., vinegar or acetic acid).
Bases
- Bases release hydroxyl ions (OH–) in solution or accept H+ already present.
- Hydroxyl ions combine with H+ to form water, reducing acidity.
- Strong bases release most or all of their hydroxyl ions; weak bases release only some or absorb only a few H+.
- Bicarbonate (HCO3–) is a weak base that attracts H+, reducing acidity.
pH Scale
- pH indicates the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
- pH is the negative, base-10 logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration.
- A pH 4 solution has an H+ concentration ten times greater than a pH 5 solution.
- The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
pH Values
- A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral (pure water).
- Numbers below 7 indicate acidity (higher H+ concentration).
- Numbers above 7 indicate alkalinity (lower H+ concentration).
- Each pH value represents a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.
pH in the Human Body
- Human urine is ten times more acidic than pure water.
- HCl is 10,000,000 times more acidic than water.
- Human blood pH normally ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 (typically pH 7.4).
- Blood can reduce acidity from carbon dioxide released by body cells.
Maintenance of pH
- Homeostatic mechanisms keep blood pH within a narrow range.
- Fluctuations in pH (too acidic or too alkaline) can be life-threatening.
- Cells depend on acid-base balance at approximately pH 7.4.
- The body regulates pH through breathing, excretion of chemicals in urine, and buffers in body fluids.
Buffers
- A buffer is a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base.
- Buffers neutralize small amounts of acids or bases.
- If pH decreases, the buffer (acting as a weak base) binds excess hydrogen ions.
- If pH rises, the buffer (acting as a weak acid) contributes hydrogen ions.
Acidosis
- Acidosis is excessive acidity of blood and body fluids.
- Common causes include reduced breathing effectiveness, leading to CO2 buildup.
- Can also result from metabolic problems or reduced buffer function.
- Severe diarrhea can cause bicarbonate loss.
- Poorly managed diabetes can cause production of acids called ketones (diabetic ketoacidosis).
- Kidney failure, liver failure, heart failure, cancer, and other disorders can prompt metabolic acidosis.
Alkalosis
- Alkalosis is a condition in which blood and body fluids are too alkaline (basic).
- Major causes include respiratory disorders (reduced carbon dioxide levels).
- Lung disease, aspirin overdose, shock, and anxiety can cause respiratory alkalosis.
- Metabolic alkalosis often results from severe vomiting causing loss of hydrogen and chloride ions.
- Diuretics and excessive antacid use can also prompt alkalosis.
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Description
The human body is composed of fundamental chemical elements, with nucleotide bases forming the genetic code, containing instructions for development and maintenance. Human chemistry involves organic and biochemical molecules essential for life, originating from elements like phosphorus, carbon, sodium, and calcium. Atomic structure dictates element characteristics, influencing chemical reactions, energy transformation, and muscle contraction.
