Textile Industry: History & Trade

Wool

• Long fibers are used in worsted fabrics.
• It is durable, with moderate abrasion resistance.
• Wool resists wetting but dries slowly.
• It is resilient and resists wrinkling.
• Moths can attack it.
• It is a poor conductor of heat and a good insulator.

Silk

• A natural protein fiber derived from moth larvae
• It is a luxury fiber that has inherent luster.
• Only a natural filament fiber of its kind
• Silk has good moisture absorption and drapes well.
• The fiber has high strength for a protein fiber.
• Sericulture refers to silk production.
• One silkworm generates around 1000 yards of filament.
• Staple silk is less valuable than filament.
• Silk noils are lower quality and less expensive.
• The fiber is solid, smooth, and possesses an irregular diameter including a triangular cross-section.
• The strongest natural fiber loses strength when wet.
• Avoid direct sunlight to protect integrity.

Man-Made Fibers

• Rayon is cellulose-based, derived from wood pulp.
• Nylon, a synthetic fiber, is derived from petroleum.
• Three-step spinning processes include:
  • Preparing a viscous dope.
  • Forcing the dope through a spinneret.
  • Solidifying the fiber.
• Generic vs. Trademark examples:
  • Spandex vs. Lycra.
  • Lyocell vs. Tencel.
• Two categories of man-made fibers are:
  • Regenerated cellulosic.
  • Synthetic/thermoplastic.

Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers

• Rayon is the first man-made fiber, known as "Artificial silk".
• Rayon is highly absorbent, soft, and becomes weak, especially when wet.
• Lyocell:
  • A newer fiber known as Tencel.
  • Shares properties similar to cotton.
• Acetate:
  • A thermoplastic material.
  • Has a silk-like appearance.
  • Characterized as a weak fiber when wet or dry.

Synthetic/Thermoplastic Fibers

• Common properties:
  • Heat sensitive
  • Chemical resistant
  • Low moisture absorbency
  • Electrostatic, prone to pilling, and oleophilic.
• Nylon:
  • First synthetic fiber made by DuPont in 1939.
  • Durable, elastic, low moisture absorption, works as a color scavenger and abrasion-resistant.
• Polyester:
  • Most consumed fiber
  • Variable strength and elasticity with low moisture absorption and heat resistance.
  • Blends well and is regarded as "wash and wear.”
  • Recycled polyester is stronger.
• Olefin:
  • Has waxy feel, maintaining its strength when wet or dry.
  • Has wicking ability.
• Acrylic:
  • Imitates wool, creates warmth, and pills easily.

Special Use Man-Made Fibers

• Elastomeric Fibers:
  • Known for high elongation ranging from 400-800% and good recovery.
• Rubber:
  • Can be natural or synthetic.
  • Offers excellent elongation and recovery.
• Spandex:
  • Marketed as "Lycra” by DuPont.
  • Resistant to body oils, perspiration, and is durable.

Yarns

• Yarn is a strand of textile fibers for knitting or weaving.
• Two types:
  • Spun yarns utilizes staple fibers.
  • Filament yarns uses continuous filaments

Yarn Size

• Cotton Count:
  • An indirect system where a higher number means a finer yarn.
  • Based on hanks, where 1 hank = 840 yards.
• Denier:
  • A direct system where a higher number means a larger yarn.
  • Weight in grams of 9000 meters.
• Tex system:
  • Direct system

Yarn Twist

• Twist binds fibers, increasing strength.
• TPI refers to twists per inch.
• Loose twist yarns have warmth qualities.
• High twist yarns offer durability.
• Crepe twist yarns: exhibit high twist, creating a unique fabric hand.
• Direction of Twist: Includes S and Z twist.

Filament Yarns

• Long, continuous filaments are present.
• Smooth filament yarns are uniform, high luster, no protruding ends.
• Monofilament yarns uses a single coarse filament with a low melting rate.
• Bulk continuous fibers (BCF): Bulked continuous fibers for natural appearance.

Spun Yarns

• Staple fibers are held by twist.
• Protruding fiber ends, comfortable.
• Ring spinning is standard for spun yarns.
• The fiber opening, carding, combing, roving, drawing, and spinning
• Combing removes shorter fibers for higher quality.
• Drawing combines slivers.

Important Industry Organizations

• NCTO represents U.S. textile industry.
• AATCC develops test methods for textile quality control.
• ISO sets standards for textiles, raw materials, and testing.

Trade Publications

• Textile World offers trade and policy information.
• Nonwovens Industry Magazine covers the global nonwovens industry.
• Fibre2fashion is a B2B resource for the textile complex.
• Eco Textile News provides environmental magazine for the textile supply chain.

Textile Trade Shows

• Première Vision New York: Showcases fabrics, leather, accessories.
• International Textile Alliance: Showcases fabric, leather, trim presentations.
• Interwoven: Home textiles, accessories.

Impacts on Textile Pricing and Composition

• The price of fuel affects the price of textiles.
• Petrochemicals are used in man-made fibers.
• Fertilizers and pesticides are utilized in natural fibers.
• Staple fibers are short fibers measured in inches or centimeters.
• Filament fibers are long fibers measured in yards, meters, and kilometers.

Main Natural Fibers

• The four main natural fibers are:
  • Cotton
  • Flax (linen)
  • Wool
  • Silk

Man-Made Fiber Industry

• Rayon was the first man-made fiber.
• Making man-made fibers is very capital intensive, requiring significant money, equipment, and labor.
• There is some control over the fiber when its man-made
• There are major fibers with large companies exist alongside smaller firms developing niche fibers.
• Fruit of the loom, inc. is located in Bowling Green, Kentucky.

Sustainable Fabric Makers

• Sustainable fabric makers include:
  • Makers Row
  • Wazoodle
  • Hemp Fortex
  • ZS fabrics
  • Organic fabric company
• Making yarn from fibers involves:
  • Spun yarn from staple fibers.
  • Filament yarn from filament fibers.
• Can be dyed at fiber or yarn stage.

Fabric Manufacturing

• Involves producing flat or circular textile through:
  • Woven
  • Knit
  • Non-woven
• Dyeing and finishing often occur at this level.
• Most companies specialize in one category of product.
• For example, knits at lower price point or wovens at a higher price point.
• Dyeing and finishing also occur at this level.

End-Uses for Textile Producers

• There are three major categories:
  • Home furnishings
  • Apparel
  • Industrial fabrics like seatbelts
• Retail serves as the link between manufacturer and consumer with a wide variety of retailers and more e-commerce presences.
• Consumers are the end consumer.
• Government is the largest consumer.
• It's important to discover what consumers want so as not to make something that will not sell.
• US spending on clothes averages $170 per month.
• 2023 saw a 5% increase from 2021 after the restrictions of the covid pandemic eased.
• Textile complex jobs are experiences many change as the amount spent on clothing has risen for three years.
• US apparel manufacturing has experienced a decline because of new equipment, with the US employing 90% fewer than in 1990.
• The home furnishing job sector is strong
• Outsourcing is employed because of less expensive labor markets.

Trends in US Textile Industry

• America accounts for 3% of all manufacturing.
• America purchases 20 billion garments a year, about 70 garments per person.
• Americans purchase more garments because of fast fashion and worsened by e-commerce.
• Americans are spending less on apparel.

Early Developments of U.S. Textile Industry

• The pilgrims encouraged the colonists to bring sheep.
• They prioritized producing their own wares.
• England thought colonist should be supplying them with goods.
• Two agricultural products that the Brits were interested in growing:
  • Tobacco
  • Cotton
• After the revolution wool, cotton, and flax production grew.
• Flax was very popular it was more affordable
• The first congress put tariff on cotton to protect American production.
• A Tariff is a tax on imported goods.
• Imports refer to goods or services bought from other countries.
• Exports refer to goods or services sold to other countries.

Factors Impacting Market

• If there is weak dollar, the products are more interesting because they are cheaper.
• If there is a strong dollar, purchases can increase from others. An embargo is a complete ban of imports or exports to one country.

Developments in Production

• In 1789, Samiel Slater brought plans for a cotton mill to America, opening one in Rhode Island in 1791.
• The spinning Jenny was invented
• It was invented by James Hargraves in 1764 as a multi-spindle spinning frame.
• It greatly reduced amount of work needed
• In 1795 Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin.
• In 1813 Francis Cabot Lowell made a functional power loom.
• In 1847 more people were used in textiles more than any other industry.
• Migrants were a larger source of labor.
• A growth in natural fiber production is expected because people say it is better for the environment.
• Materials like leather and other natural fibers degrade more quickly than man made fibers.

War of 1812

• Placed new demand on U.S textile industry because of British embargoes.
• Large growth at this time, we had to become much more reliant on ourselves.
• Brits dumped cheap cotton on the market.
• They were selling cotton for less than its worth to undermine the American cotton industry.

Shifts from Farms to Mill Towns

• Workers migrated from farm towns to towns with textile mills which allowed them to make cash wages.

• This began to change, in New England, from a rural society to an urban industrial society.

• The textile industry changed the employment of women.

• Women could now make their own money and have some independence.

• Spinning mills modeled after English factory system trying to avoid duplicating the horrors.

• Many mill owners built boarding houses and dormitories and staffed with matrons who supervised the young women workers.

• The women were closely monitored.

• Typical factory day:

  • Rise at 4:30 am
  • Work till 7pm
  • Two half-hour meal breaks

• They often sent most money they made back home.

• Even though America was trying to avoid English factory conditions, abuses occurred.

• Farm workers were used to working all day so there was not a lot of sympathy for factory workers.

• In 1845, an early union was formed: Lowell Female labor Reform Association.

• By 1853, the workday was shortened to 11 hours.

Basic Economies and Political Systems

• An economy is the sum of all we produce and all we consume.
• An economic system is the way of organizing the production of goods and services that people want and distributing the products to the end consumer.
• An economic system determines how things are allocated Includes control of economic activity and ownership of factory productions.

Market Directed System

• In a market-directed system consumers have the opportunity to make choices as they wish.
• Individuals determine what happens in the economy, not the government.
• Firms have the freedom to respond to consumer demand in ways that are beneficial to them.
• Firms can try to stimulate consumer demand.
• Price becomes regulator of supply and demand.
• This system rewards companies that sell the most product and respond best to consumer desires
• Ideal market-directed economies do not exist.
• The middle class, were bigger and becoming wealthy like merchants and manufacturers .
• The upper class was more powerful economically and politically

Pre Civil War Economy

• Cotton was relatively minor but then by the civil war, it was the leading industry
• Between 1820 and 1930 approx. 62 million people immigrated, forming an important labor supply for textile and later garment production.
• The emergence of isolationism and nationalism began particularly after ww1.
• As a result, protecting markets from imports by imposing quotas became more important
• Other countries responded by imposing their own trade restrictions, sharply dividing international trade by WWI.

Isolationism

• Characterized by remaining apart from affairs or interests of other groups.
• Rooted in resentment of WWI and the loss of life with a high cost of war.
• Treaty of Versailles and League of nations was signed due to (New president/ Wilson had promised to stay out of war)
• Treaty led Germany to high inflation because they were ordered to pay reparations.
• The U.S has previously surpassed Great Britain as world leader.
• Trade became more unstable and during the Great Depression, textile trade plummeted.
• the world experienced very strong competition.
• The first half of the 20th century international trade actually declined
• Japan had become a key cotton textile exporter.
• In the 1930s Britain, the U.S and other countries passed protective measures against Japan textile products
• Japan quickly recovered from the Great Depression

Post War Era

• The US acquired the advantage.
• The manufacturing complex was completely intact
• U.S textile & apparel producers were so confident they provided technical assistance to the Japanese industry.
• Japan recovered really quickly.
• By 1953, Japan exported more textile and apparel than either U.S or Great Britain.
• Imports were less than 1% of U.S textile consumption buy textile companies were worried.
• Increased trade brought growing concerns about protecting domestic markets
• Leaders in major trading countries initiated two efforts right after WWII

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Establish rules by which exchange rates between currencies could be determined
• Before, governments could manipulate the value of currency.
• Foster economic growth and high levels of employment.
• Provide temporary financial assistance to countries to help ease payments.
• Ensure the stability of the International money system

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

• Established in 1947 to promote unrestricted trade through reduction of tariffs.
• It operated as a set of rules to conduct international trade for members only.
• International trade grew in the 1940's to the 1960's
• U.S began importing a lot of goods textile apparel products, mainly from Japan and Hong Kong.
• caused frustration as many European countries weren't following GATT guidelines.

Multi-fiber Arrangement (MFA)

• MFA regulated world trade in apparel and textiles from 1974 to 1994
• The MFA set up boundaries with quota and tariffs for developed countries to trade With developing countries.
• Why MFA Was important:
  • 1 Major technological changes development & increased manufactured fibers in the 70's
  • 2. Economic change- More developing began exporting textiles -3. Trade openness was growing so you had to agree bi-laterally

World Trade Organization (WTO)

• Established January 1, 1995.
• Has over 160 members representing 98% of world trade with more looking to join.
• WTO Objectives:
  • Administrative trade agreements.
  • Forum for negotiations, settling disputes, reviews policies.
  • Cooperative
  • Provides countries with help writing policy.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

• Signed in 1992 ratified in 1993 reduces cost, increases business, and creates a competitive marketplace
• Reduced trading cost to increase business investments and helped north America become more competitive in the global marketplace
• All tariffs were eliminated January 2008
• Between 1993 and 2009 trade tripled from 297 billon to 1.6 million
• Was renegotiated to USMCA Became in effect for all countries on July 1 2020
• Creates a more level playing field for American workers especially in manufacturing. New protection for US intellectual property Strengthen food and agricultural trade.

Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)

• Signed into law on June 30 2005 for: - DR - Costa Rica
• The agreement removes trade barriers between the U.S and these countries in 2006

Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)

• In Jan 2018, the new version of the TPP, CPTPP began.
• The group represents approx. 13.4% of global
• Highest standards for protecting intellectual
• Specific benefits vary greatly from country to country.
• It includes the 10 members of the association of Southeast Asian nations, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.
• The new free trade zone will be bigger than both the US-Mexico-Canada agreement.
• India was also part of the negotiations but pulled out over concerns that lower tariffs could hurt local producers.
• The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) will eliminate a range of tariffs on all imports with 20 years.
• Trade will be bigger than USMCA and EU combined largest trading block in history.

US Textile & Apparel Industries Within the Global Economy

• International trade has always had an impact on the US textile and apparel industry
• Since the world is more global you can focus on just the US market.
• Shift of work because Sustained economic growth since WWII led to a general world growth of 45% since 1950,
• in general consumers had more money to spend along with fewer restrictions on international trade

Global Factors

• Many countries are trying to improve their status
• Apparel production is often attractive as an exporting country because Usually countries typically have an abundance of low-cost labor
• Communications: technology improved and reduced the time distance
• Easy access and improved transportation.
• Intuitional arrangements assist transfer of of shipments from countries and payments. Highlighted terms are test terms
• A number of companies are also horizontally integrated

Production

• Horizontal integration- happens when a firm expands production along the process:
  • Yarn processing
  • Yarn spinning -Fabric production -Fabric finishing

Products that Textiles are Used In

• Textile-based products include clothing, technical, and household goods.
• Serviceability describes the textile product to meeting a consumer's needs:
  • Be sure to understand target market and needs
  • Aesthetics - Is it pretty or does it have the look you want?
  • Durability- How long does it last
  • Comfort - Is it Comfortable
  • Safety
  • Appearance retention - Does it hold its quality over time
  • Care- What kind of care does it need
  • Target market preference -Environmental impact

Terminanology

• Sustainability - Practices that do not hurt resources Life cycle impact of products
• Not exploiting laborers
• Cost
• Dispose

Textiles in Production

• Disposal cost
• Reasonable for the product
• Importance of cost
• Fiber
• Fiber v Fabric

Fiber Properties

• Textile Fibers need to be flexible, strong and capable of forming fabric
• They can be classifed as natrual or manmade and are spun into yarn to make fabric
• The fiber determines the characteristics and performance of its fabric

1. Staple or long
2. Filiment

• Luster : refers to light reflected
• Highluster is shiney
• Luster of man made fiber can be changed
• Hand: way a fabric feels to the touch
• Drape
• Shape covers cross section, irregular shape and textile measurement : Pilling, is the formation of balls
• Abrasion:when fiber is damaged by rubbing it.
• Fiber-elongation
• ELastisicty- Retains shape
• Resiliency
• Resistance

Heat Properties

• Heat, will either melt or glaze the fiber depending on the temperature.
• Heat Conductivity refers to how well it conducts heat.
• Low is a better.

Moisture Properties

• Moisture absorbable
• Ability to take in moistue
• Hydrophilc, is a water loving fiber and the opposite and the wicking.

Classifying Fibers

• There are 2 types

1. Natural
2. Manmade

Natural Properties

• Natural are used for a Long Time
• Animals produce protein
• Cellulosice comes from plans
• Natural cellulose has a good absornency. And is a good conductore that is strongest when weto
• Low reslicney ( easily wrinkles and is flamable)

Cellulose Fibers

• Most fiber is cotton and its a a cash crop, cotton needs climate and 5k to produce
• Longer staple have a more quality: wrinkles and better when moist, while the majority can be cotton and convoluted
• Basics that are Bast, plans, or ramie and linen has more steps
• 1. Wrinkles
• 2. Absorbs
• 3. Conductors And STRONGER when what

Protein Fibers

• Resiliency wool is the best

• Weaker when its changes in structure, because armful to perspiration and light fabrics