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Questions and Answers
Which family does teff belong to?
What classification does teff fall under concerning its life cycle?
Where was teff first domesticated?
What is a common product made from teff flour?
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Which step follows harvesting in the processing of teff seeds?
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What type of plant is arugula classified as?
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Which part of the arugula plant is primarily used for culinary purposes?
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What method is commonly used for harvesting arugula on large-scale farms?
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What is the native distribution of arugula?
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Why is cold storage used during the arugula packaging process?
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What was a primary limitation of early artificial classification systems?
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Who created the first documented plant classification system?
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What is the key feature of Carl Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature?
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Which of the following is true regarding the rules of binomial nomenclature?
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What period is referred to as 'The Age of Herbals' in plant classification history?
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What contributes to the complexity of using common names in plant taxonomy?
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What is the significance of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature?
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What is the primary focus of phenetic classification systems in plant taxonomy?
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What type of information is critical for implementing a phylogenetic classification of flowering plants?
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Which plant characteristic does not typically play a significant role in morphological classification?
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Which of the following statements accurately reflects a challenge in classifying flowering plants?
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What is a defining characteristic of the Socotra Dragon Trees?
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Which of the following species is known for growing in foggy weather on Mt. Kilimanjaro?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic used in phenetic classification?
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What distinguishes monocots from eudicots primarily?
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Which of the following statements is supported by Joseph Hooker's hypothesis on flower evolution?
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Which characteristic is NOT a feature of monocots?
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What has recent molecular biology studies indicated about the classification of flowering plants?
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In the Hooker system, what is a significant evolutionary change observed in flowers?
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What are the common floral parts found in eudicots?
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What is a defining feature of the root system in monocots?
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What defines a biological species according to the content?
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Which of the following issues challenges the application of the biological species concept to plants?
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What is the primary alternative used by plant taxonomists to classify and describe species?
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How can environmental conditions affect plant morphology?
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Which plant is noted for its significant morphological change related to its floral structure?
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What does the phenomenon of 'plasticity' in plants refer to?
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Which of the following is an example of a plant that has evolved parasitic characteristics?
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What is a significant consequence of the variations in plant morphology?
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What is the primary advantage of agriculture?
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In which regions did agriculture first develop, according to archaeological evidence?
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What theory did Gordon Childe propose about the transition to agriculture?
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What is suggested as a reason agriculture may have developed in arid regions?
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Carl Sauer's theory on agriculture emphasized which environmental factor?
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What archaeological evidence supports the origins of agriculture?
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Which type of species is indicated as native to the Fertile Crescent region that facilitated early agriculture?
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What is the primary purpose of genetic crossing and back-crossing in plant breeding?
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Which method is NOT typically used for cloning plant cultivars?
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What outcome can result from inducing polyploidy in plants using colchicine?
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Which of the following statements is accurate regarding genetic mutations in plant breeding?
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What is a notable feature of the hybrid crop triticale?
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What role does mutability play in crop development?
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What is an essential characteristic of modern agricultural crops in relation to ploidy?
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Which of these cloning methods is specifically used for joining plant tissues?
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What is a major concern regarding genetically engineered crops?
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What distinguishes genetic engineering from genetic modification?
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Why is genetic diversity important in agriculture?
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What is one of the criticisms associated with genetically engineered seeds?
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What role do older plant varieties play in modern agriculture?
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What is a major challenge faced in the preservation of tropical rain forests?
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What is a key distinction between genetically modified crops and genetically engineered crops?
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Which archaeological development occurred around 8,750 years ago in Asia Minor?
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What role did Binford and Flannery attribute to early plant gatherers?
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Which theory emphasizes the significance of weeds in the transition to agriculture?
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What was a major agricultural development in the region of Jarmo approximately 10,000 years ago?
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What factor contributed to the agricultural development in Asia Minor?
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Which crop was one of the first to be cultivated approximately 8,750 years ago along with wheat in Asia Minor?
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What is the primary outcome of the planting-harvesting link in early agricultural practices?
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Which of the following characteristics is likely to have been favored in cereal crops due to human agricultural practices?
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How did early agricultural practices influence the phenotypic characteristics of cultivated plants?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic favored by selection pressures in cereal crops?
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Which genotype characteristic would likely diminish in prevalence due to human harvesting practices?
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What role does the number of florets play in the selection of cereal crops by early agriculturalists?
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What were the primary crops shifted to in southeast Europe due to the cooler climate?
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Which region showed evidence of agriculture around 6,000 years ago?
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What is referred to as 'incipient cultivation' in agricultural development?
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What significant agricultural practice was introduced in Central Mexico about 2,500 years ago?
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Which of the following crops is NOT mentioned as native to the Sahara region?
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What limitation affects the knowledge of agricultural practices in eastern Asia?
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What is a consequence of the loss of seed shattering in crop plants?
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How does competition among plants at high density affect seed selection?
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Which introduced crop had a significant impact on European agriculture during the 1600s?
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What characteristic allows weedy species to thrive alongside crop plants?
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What was one effect of the European conquest of the Americas on food crops?
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Which of the following species is known for evolving as a weed of early European wheat fields?
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What selection pressure favors simultaneous seed maturation in plant cultivars?
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What role did the Arabic colonization of Spain play in European agriculture?
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Which of the following effects does the selective pressure of agriculture NOT impose on plant species?
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Which of the following describes a defined aspect of early agricultural practices in the Aztec civilization?
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What underlying mechanism contributes to the changes in phenotypic characteristics of cultivated plants?
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What is the primary benefit of developing a new resistant cultivar in modern agriculture?
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Which method is used for maintaining hybrid vigor in crops like corn?
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What does the term 'polyploidy' refer to in the context of plant breeding?
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What is one of the main advantages of plants being easily cloned?
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Which hybrid crop was developed by crossing wheat and rye?
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How can genetic mutations affect crop development?
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Which of the following is NOT a method of cloning plants?
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What advantage did the domestication of plants offer compared to a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle?
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What was one significant incentive for early human populations to settle in one place?
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How did the shift to agriculture change human societal structures?
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What role did early hunter-gatherers serve in the ecosystems they inhabited?
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What relationship is suggested between plant domestication and environmental control?
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What is one of the questions ethnobotanists and cultural anthropologists seek to answer regarding agriculture?
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What major crops were included in agriculture practiced in Central America around 7,000 years ago?
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Which of the following events occurred approximately 6,000 years ago in Asia Minor?
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In what region did evidence of agrarian society first develop around 6,000 years ago?
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What significant invention was developed in Egypt around 14,000 years ago?
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Which statement accurately denotes a misconception regarding the agriculture development timeline?
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What prompted the shift to rye and oats in Europe around 6,000 years ago?
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What was a significant agricultural development 2,500 years ago?
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Which crop introduction is attributed to the Arabic colonization of Spain?
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Which region is known for the domestication of the potato?
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What percentage of cultivation was noted 5,500 years ago?
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Which crop was introduced to Russia in the 1700s?
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Which of the following was NOT a crop introduced to Europe by Roman colonization?
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Study Notes
Teff: An Ancient Staple Crop
- Teff (Eragrostis tef) belongs to the Poaceae family, commonly known as the grass family.
- It is a herbaceous annual, meaning it completes its life cycle within a single growing season.
- Teff is native to the Horn of Africa, specifically Ethiopia and Eritrea.
- Domestication occurred in the Ethiopian highlands between 4000 BC and 1000 BC.
- Ethiopia currently accounts for over 90% of global Teff production.
- Teff seeds are the primary edible part of the plant.
- Teff is harvested, threshed, cleaned, and milled into flour.
- Injera, a traditional Ethiopian flatbread, is made with fermented Teff flour.
- Teff seeds can also be cooked whole.
- Teff flour is used for various gluten-free products including pasta, cereals, biscuits, and bread.
Botanical Information
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Arugula belongs to the Brassicaceae family, also known as the mustard family.
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Arugula is a herbaceous, eudicot plant.
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It is classified as a herb, specifically a leafy green plant used for culinary purposes.
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Arugula is an annual plant, meaning it completes its life cycle within one growing season.
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Arugula is native to the Mediterranean region, which includes parts of southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.
Utilization
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The leaves of the arugula plant are used as food.
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Arugula leaves have a peppery, spicy flavor.
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They are commonly used in salads, pestos, and as toppings for pizzas, sandwiches, and soups.
Commercial Harvesting
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Harvesting is done mechanically on large-scale farms.
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Mechanical harvesters cut the leaves at the base, allowing for regrowth.
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Harvested leaves are transported to a processing area.
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Leaves are sorted to remove damaged or discolored ones.
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Arugula leaves are washed thoroughly to remove dirt and contaminants.
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After cleaning, the arugula is dried and packaged for wholesale or retail sale.
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Packaging often includes measures to maintain freshness, such as breathable bags or moisture-absorbing packets.
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Packaged arugula is stored in cold storage facilities until it is shipped to markets or grocery stores.
History of Plant Classification
- Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle, created the first plant classification system around 2300 years ago.
- He recognized distinct families like Pea, Grass, Sunflower, and Mustard.
- The Age of Herbals (1470-1670) saw the development of herbal manuscripts with illustrations and medicinal properties of plants.
- Due to problems with inconsistently used common names across languages, a Latin-based system of nomenclature was developed.
- Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial system in Species Plantarum (1753), which is still used today.
- The binomial system assigns a generic name and a species epithet to each plant, for example Picea glauca (white spruce).
- The system follows rules from the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, including capitalization and italicization of the binomial name.
Plant Species
- A biological species is defined as a group of individuals that can interbreed but not with other species, producing fertile offspring.
- This definition is difficult to apply in practice for plants because spatially separated populations of the same species may not readily interbreed, and some plant species can form fertile hybrids with others.
- Plant taxonomists use morphological form to classify and describe species because the biological species concept is not always applicable to plants.
- Plant morphology, however, can be influenced by environmental conditions (e.g., light levels, touch) and is constantly evolving, making it challenging to rely solely on morphology for classification.
Evolutionary Relationships of Flowering Plants
- Phenetic classification: Uses many characters, emphasizing conserved characteristics (those that do not vary with environmental conditions) to classify plants, such as floral characters like inflorescence types, flower structure, and fruit and seed types.
- Phylogenetic classification: Focuses on evolutionary relationships of plants, which is made more readily available through advances in molecular biology.
- Hooker-Bessey-Cronquist system: Accepted today, it recognizes between 300 and 350 flowering plant families.
- This system hypothesizes that evolution led to a reduction in floral parts, fusion of petals, development of irregular corollas, and separation of sexes in plants.
Flowering Plants: Monocots and Eudicots
- Monocots have a single cotyledon, while eudicots have two cotyledons.
- Several morphological features distinguish them:
- Monocots: Herbaceous, never woody; have floral parts in multiples of 3, linear leaves with parallel veins, and a short-lived primary root with a fibrous root system.
- Eudicots: Herbaceous or woody, floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5, broad leaves with net veins, and a persistent primary root that forms a taproot.
- Recent genetic investigations have revealed that the division of flowering plants into monocots and eudicots is too simplistic, as a third group, known as magnoliid Angiosperms, evolved prior to the divergence of these other two groups.
Origins of Agriculture
- Agriculture is the cultivation of land for planting crops.
- The earliest evidence of agriculture dates back 5,000 to 7,000 years ago and originated independently in Asia Minor, China-Southeast Asia, and the Americas.
- The Fertile Crescent region of Asia Minor (present-day Iraq, Iran, and eastern Turkey) is considered the earliest site for agricultural development.
- Theories explaining the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural existence:
- Neolithic Revolution (Childe, 1928): Crowded encampments around watering holes during dry periods favored the growth of wild grass species, leading to domestication.
- Favorable Habitats (Sauer, 1952): Human populations first settled in favorable habitats, then moved to less optimal areas as population increased, leading to plant domestication.
- Weed Precursor (Anderson, 1952): Plant hybridization in disturbed habitats like dump heaps resulted in new and useful food plants.
- Applied Botanists (Binford & Flannery, 1960s): Early gatherers were skilled in cultivating plants based on their needs.
Centers of Agricultural Origin
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Asia Minor (Near East):
- Archaeological evidence from Jarmo, Iraq, suggests:
- Wild grains were collected 10,000 years ago.
- Wheat became a major crop by 8,750 years ago, alongside barley, goats, sheep, and later pigs.
- Peas, lentils, vetch, grapes, olives, dates, pears, and cherries were domesticated over the next century.
- Around 7,000 years ago, human populations migrated to the Tigris-Euphrates valleys, leading to the development of sophisticated urban civilizations by 6,000 years ago.
- Archaeological evidence from Jarmo, Iraq, suggests:
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Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates valleys):
- Sophisticated agricultural practices emerged by 2,500 years ago.
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Americas:
- Aztec (Mexico): Intensive irrigation agriculture.
- Mayan (Central America): Selection of corn and bean cultivars.
- Inca (Andes, South America): Potato domestication and irrigation systems.
Selection Pressures on Plants
- Plant characteristics are influenced by the genome and evolve through natural selection.
- Domestication alters the phenotypic characteristics of wild plants.
- The "planting-harvesting link" led to the selection of agriculturally beneficial cultivars.
- Selection pressures favored the following characteristics in cereal crops:
- Uniform seed maturation: Favoring simultaneous seed maturation.
- Compression of tillering: Eliminating the production of axillary shoots (tillers) with different maturation times.
- Loss of seed appendages: Eliminating inedible appendages that fall off before harvest.
- Loss of germination inhibitors: Promoting simultaneous seed germination.
- Increase in number of florets: More florets lead to more seeds.
- Reduction in day-length sensitivity: Developing cultivars that are less sensitive to day length, which triggers seed production.
Plant Breeding: Genetic Modification
- Green Revolution: A direct outcome of advancements in plant breeding, soil fertility, pest control, and mechanization.
- Genetic Crossing and Back-crossing: Standard methods for developing new cultivars and maintaining hybrid vigor, requiring intensive labor and patience.
- Artificial Doubling of Chromosome Number: Using colchicine to induce polyploidy (doubling of chromosomes), often resulting in larger, robust plants, called "monster plants."
- Genetic Mutation: Spontaneous or induced mutations can be propagated to create new varieties, like the development of Brussels sprouts from cabbage.
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Genetic Engineering (GE): Adding genetic information from another organism into a crop plant.
- GE crops have become increasingly common, offering resistance to pests, pathogens, and herbicides.
- Growing consumer concerns over potential risks to ecosystems, consumer health, and the cost of seeds.
Genetic Diversity
- The availability of a diverse genetic pool is crucial for developing new crop varieties, crops, and medicines.
- Loss of older, less productive plant varieties is a concern, as these may hold valuable genetic material.
- The destruction of natural ecosystems, particularly tropical rain forests, leads to a loss of vital genetic resources.
Early History of Plants and People
- Domestication of plants began approximately 10,000 years ago.
- Prior to domestication, humans were hunter-gatherers and nomadic.
- Hunter-gatherers were expert botanists, with deep knowledge of plants and their cycles.
- Agriculture led to more reliable food sources, larger populations, and greater control over the environment.
- Early settlements with access to resources like estuaries spurred agriculture development.
Origins of Agriculture
- Ethnobotanists examine the origins and development of agriculture.
- Key questions include:
- Where were the centers of agriculture?
- What factors led to the development of agriculture?
- How did dependence on agriculture evolve?
- How did crop plants change over time?
- How did societies and cultures change with agriculture?
Agriculture in Europe
- Agricultural practices spread from Asia Minor to Europe around 6,000 years ago.
- The cooler European climate led to a shift in cereal crops from wheat and barley to rye and oats.
- Forest conversion to cropland was evident in Denmark by 6,000 years ago.
- Evidence of cereal grinding equipment in Egypt dates back 14,000 years ago, but its use for domesticated or wild cereals is debated.
- Important African crops include sorghum, millet, and yams, with evidence of agriculture in the Sahara region by 6,000 years ago.
Central China (Far East)
- The earliest evidence of agriculture in central China is from the Yang-Chao site near the Yellow River, dating back about 6,000 years.
- This region had irrigated rice fields, large villages, and sophisticated social structures.
- While agriculture existed in other parts of eastern Asia, preservation challenges in tropical climates limit knowledge.
- Spirit Cave in Thailand shows evidence of bean and pea cultivation 9,000 years ago and rice cultivation 7,000 years ago.
Central America
- Central Mexico and Peru had drier climates, leading to better preservation of archeological material from the early stages of agriculture.
- Agriculture developed in both central Mexico and Peru by 7,500 years ago, although they developed differently.
- Tehuacan, Mexico experienced slower agricultural development than Jarmo, Iraq. This slower process is called incipient cultivation.
- Development at Tehuacan:
- 9,000-7,000 years ago: Mostly hunter-gatherer.
- 7,000 years ago: 15% cultivation with crops like corn, squash, peppers, amaranth, and avocado.
- 5,500 years ago: About 30% cultivation.
- 3,500 years ago: Fully agricultural with crops like hybrid corn, tomato, squash, beans, peppers, cotton, many fruits. Domestication of dogs.
- 2,500 years ago: Irrigation was introduced and turkeys were domesticated.
- Evidence of agricultural development exists in wetter areas of Central and South America, but preservation is poor.
- Sophisticated agricultural practices by 2,500 years ago:
- Aztec (Mexico): Intensive irrigation agriculture.
- Mayan (Central America): Selection of corn and beans.
- Inca (Andes, South America): Potato domestication, irrigation systems.
Selection Pressures on Plants
- Human activities often impact plant characteristics - evolution through natural selection.
- The "planting-harvesting link" led to the selection of cultivars favored for agriculture.
- In the wild, plants produce seeds over extended periods, ensuring some seeds survive under favorable conditions.
- Genotype 2, with simultaneous seed maturity, was favored under human selection, as more of its seeds would be harvested.
- Similar selection pressures favored characteristics like:
- Uniform seed maturation
- Compression of tillering
- Loss of seed appendages
- Loss of germination inhibitors
- Increase in number of florets
- Reduction in day-length sensitivity
- Loss of shattering
- Increase in food reserves (starch)
- Selection also impacted weeds:
- Some weeds can germinate, shed seeds before harvest, and maintain their populations.
- Some weeds mimic crop plants, leading to their inclusion in harvests.
- Rye is thought to have evolved as a weed of early European wheat fields.
Geographic Origin and Spread of Plants
- Many food plants had limited global distributions in their origins.
- Introduction of new crops dramatically changed both agriculture and diets.
- Examples include:
- Potatoes from South America to Europe
- Tomato and chili pepper from South America to Europe and Asia
- Sugar cane from southeast Asia to the Caribbean
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Europe:
- Romans introduced peas, oats, rye, and herbs into northern Europe.
- Arabic colonization of Spain brought rice, sugar cane, sorghum, and citrus fruits.
- European conquest of the Americas introduced corn and potatoes to Europe.
- Exploration of eastern Asia introduced rhubarb, almond, apricot, peach, coffee, black pepper, and other Asian species.
-
Asia:
- Asia is home to many indigenous food plants, notably rice.
Plant Breeding: Genetic Modification
- The "Green Revolution" resulted from advancements in crop breeding, soil fertility, pest/pathogen control, and farm mechanization.
- Crop breeding methods:
- Genetic Crossing and Back-crossing: Standard method for developing new cultivars and maintaining hybrid vigor.
- Artificial Doubling of Chromosome Number: Colchicine is used to induce polyploidy, often resulting in larger, more robust plants.
- Genetic Mutation: Spontaneous or induced mutations can lead to new traits.
- Cloning: Plants can be cloned by grafting, root/shoot cuttings, and tissue culture.
Triticale: A Success Story
University of Manitoba researchers successfully crossed wheat and rye to create triticale, combining winter resistance of rye with wheat's high yields. This hybrid was developed with tissue culture and artificial chromosome doubling.
Plant Domestication Timeline
- Plant domestication began approximately 10,000 years ago.
- By 5,000-7,000 years ago, agriculture was widespread in Asia Minor, China-Southeast Asia, and the Americas.
Asia Minor
- Wild grain collection began 10,000 years ago.
- Wheat and barley cultivation, along with the domestication of goats, sheep, pigs, and other plants occurred 8,750 years ago.
- Early urbanization in the Tigris-Euphrates valleys began 7,000 years ago.
- Sophisticated urban civilizations developed 6,000 years ago.
- Agriculture from Asia Minor spread to the Balkans 6,000 years ago, with a shift to rye and oats in Europe.
- Grinding equipment was developed in Egypt 14,000 years ago.
- Agriculture was established in the Sahara 6,000 years ago.
Early Agriculture in China and Thailand
- Bean and pea cultivation occurred in Thailand 9,000 years ago.
- Rice cultivation began 7,000 years ago in Thailand.
- A developed agrarian society emerged at the Yang-Chao site near the Yellow River in China 6,000 years ago.
Early Agriculture in Central Mexico and Peru
- Hunter-gatherer societies predominated between 9,000 and 7,000 years ago.
- 15% cultivation occurred 7,000 years ago, with major crops including corn (maize), squash, peppers, amaranth, and avocado.
- Cultivation increased to 30% by 5,500 years ago.
- Full agricultural practices were established by 3,500 years ago, featuring hybrid corn, tomato, squash, beans, peppers, cotton, various fruits, and dog domestication.
- Irrigation was introduced, turkeys were domesticated, and crop seeds were traded 2,500 years ago.
Sophisticated Agricultural Practices
- Aztec civilization in Mexico practiced intensive irrigation agriculture.
- The Mayan civilization in Central America focused on selecting corn and bean cultivars.
- The Inca civilization in the Andes, South America, domesticated potatoes and implemented irrigation systems.
Crop Introductions by Region and Time Period
Europe
- Romans: Introduced peas, oats, rye, and herbs.
- Arabic Colonization of Spain: Introduced rice, sugar cane, sorghum, and citrus fruits.
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European Conquest of the Americas:
- Corn (maize) spread to Spain, Portugal, and Italy in the 1600s.
- Potatoes were introduced to Spain and England in the 1600s and to Russia and central Europe in the 1700s.
- Rhubarb, almond, apricot, peach, coffee, and black pepper were introduced from Eastern Asia during explorations in 1497.
Asia
- Indigenous: Rice
- Americas: Introduced corn (maize), papaya, pineapple, potato, sweet potato, tapioca (cassava), chili pepper.
- North-East Africa: Introduced coffee.
Africa
- Indigenous: Coffee, sorghum, millet, yam, cowpeas, watermelon, sesame, palm oil.
- Asia: Introduced coconut, rice, bananas.
- Near East: Introduced mango, eggplant.
- Americas: Introduced cassava, sweet potatoes, corn (maize), beans.
Americas
- Indigenous to Central and South America: Corn, cassava, potato, sweet potato, peanuts, tomato, chili peppers, beans.
- Spanish and English Colonists: Introduced sugar cane, bananas, rice, citrus fruits, breadfruit, and coffee.
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Description
Explore the fascinating history and cultivation of Teff, an ancient grain native to the Horn of Africa. This quiz covers Teff's origins, its significance in Ethiopian culture, and its uses in traditional and modern cuisine. Test your knowledge about this incredible staple crop!
