Tang Dynasty & Wang Yangming's Reformation

• In the 800s C.E., travelers Abu Sayd Sirafı and Hasan ibn Yazid shared their impressions of the Tang emperor's well-organized government.
• The Tang government tracked travelers throughout the empire with a pass system.
• A Governor's Pass was required for travel between places.
• All people in China, including natives, Arabs, and foreigners, had to declare their identity.
• A pottery figurine dating from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 C.E.) is believed to depict a traveler on the Silk Road.

Wang Yangming's Reformation

• Wang Yangming, a Chinese scholar in the late 1400s, initiated a reformation of neo-Confucianism.
• Similar to Martin Luther, Yangming questioned the overly formal practices of his time.
• Yangming viewed neo-Confucianism as too rigid and snobbish.
• He contended that ordinary people could lead moral lives without formal Confucian education or ceremonies.

Civil Service Examinations

• Tang and Song rulers saw neo-Confucianism and civil service exams as tools to strengthen government.
• Educated individuals were considered less prone to corruption.
• Examinations tested knowledge of Confucian writings.
• Only men could take the tests, giving an advantage to the wealthy who could afford tutors.
• Preparation began at age four, involving learning Chinese characters and memorizing Confucius's writings.
• Only one in five test-takers passed.
• Those who failed often became teachers or government assistants but could never hold official government positions.
• The examination system led to a new class of scholar-officials in China with strict rules separating them from the rest of society.
• Scholar-officials couldn't perform physical work.
• These officials heavily influenced Chinese thought and government for a long time.

Paper Money in China

• Het'um, a historian, described Cathay (China) as exceptionally rich.
• The Chinese used paper money made of sedge with a royal stamp to determine its value.
• Worn money could be exchanged for fresh money at the royal court.
• Sedge, a grass-like plant, was used for Song dynasty paper currency and is still used for weaving today.

Chinese Porcelain

• During the Tang dynasty, Chinese artisans excelled in making porcelain, a fine clay ceramic baked at high temperatures.
• Porcelain was later introduced to the West from China, leading to it being called "china."
• Porcelain was used to create figurines, vases, cups, and plates.
• An Arab traveler in 851 C.E. described Chinese porcelain as being as clear as glass bottles.
• Methods for making porcelain eventually spread to Europe in the 1700s.
• The word "porcelain" comes from French and Italian words for "shell," resembling pottery.

Mongol Rule

• In 1260, Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, became the Mongol ruler and continued his grandfather's conquest of China.
• In 1264, Kublai established his capital at Khanbaliq, now Beijing.
• By 1279, Kublai Khan had conquered all of southern China, ending the Song dynasty, and declared himself emperor.
• Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty, meaning "beginning," which lasted about 100 years.
• To maintain control, Kublai appointed Mongol leaders to top positions in China but kept some Chinese officials in power.
• Mongol culture differed from Chinese culture, with distinct languages, laws, and customs.
• Mongols lived separately from the Chinese.
• Yuan regime did not use civil service examinations in government affairs.

Quanzhou

• Quanzhou was a major trade city during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, located in southeast China with a large natural harbor.
• Founded by the Tang Dynasty in the 700s, Quanzhou was selected by Tang, Song, and Yuan emperors for direct trade with foreign merchants.
• Chinese maps identified Quanzhou as the starting point for sea-based trade with the West.
• Mongol emperors grew wealthy from taxes on foreign goods and promoted exchange among Chinese, Mongols, and foreign merchants.
• Quanzhou became home to merchants from Arabia, Persia, India, and Europe, with officials allowing foreign residents to practice their religions.
• The city housed Muslim mosques, Hindu temples, Buddhist shrines, and Christian churches.
• Later emperors banned sea trade, leading to Quanzhou's decline as a major trade city in the 1400s and 1500s.
• The harbor began filling with sediment in the 1400s.
• Quanzhou became a collection point for local agricultural products and a distribution center for manufactured goods imported through other port cities.

Ming Dynasty

• Hong Wu, of peasant origin and once a monk, became a military leader who overthrew the Mongol dynasty.
• Hong Wu established the Chinese-led Ming dynasty.
• As emperor, he declared his victory to the world.
• In 1372, Hong Wu wrote to the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, stating he had restored peace and old boundaries.
• Hong Wu established the Ming dynasty, which governed China for 276 years.
• Despite limited contact, European ideas reached China through Christian missionaries, mainly Jesuits, on European merchant ships.
• Jesuits were highly educated and sought to establish Christian schools in China and impressed some Chinese officials.
• However, the Jesuits did not convince many Chinese to accept Christianity.
• The Ming dynasty weakened due to dishonest officials and heavy taxes on farmers.
• Farmers revolted and the Manchus from the north invaded a weakened China.
• The Manchus captured Beijing in 1644 and established the Qing dynasty.
• Ming China emphasized Confucian teachings, prioritizing the good of society over individual desires.
• Each person was required to serve the public good.
• Political, social, and financial matters, such as taxes and canals, were critical because they affected the future.