System and Information Concepts

System and Information Concepts

• A system is a set of elements that are related, work together, and have a purpose.
• Systems involve interaction, processes, groupings, boundaries, properties, and rules.
• Understanding a system requires determining its boundaries and studying all elements including their interactions.
• Holistic thinking considers the whole as more than the sum of its parts.
• System goals allow measurement of system performance.
• Systems are organized and structured and possess a systemic structure of hierarchical patterns.
• Emergent properties produce properties that do not belong to each element individually.
• The environment is the larger system, and a subsystem consists of elements that can be a separate system.
• The need for a basic concept for a system was realized in 1920, leading to the formation of a professional organization which publishes the general system theory.
• A system model includes inputs, outputs, agents, processes, controls, and feedback within an environment.
• Control systems align output with the system's properties and control performance.
• Control systems are part of the system's adaptation mechanism and consist of monitoring, control inputs, and feedback.
• Three types of system performance measures include effectiveness, efficiency, and efficacy.
• Feedforward control is proactive control that affects system behavior.
• Lags cause delay between control and changes.
• System approaches are fundamentally important, often invisible, and unique to each system.
• Every system has a life cycle from birth/rebirth to death/rebirth, continuing with system rebirth depending on a control system.
• System properties range from simple with few elements to complex with diverse interactions with many elements.
• Open systems interact with their environment. Closed systems do not.
• Systems can reach a steady state (equilibrium) or remain dynamic (fluctuating, not at equilibrium).
• Systems can be adaptive or non-adaptive with permanence or non-permanence (short life cycle.)
• Discrete systems have visible stages of change. Continuous systems do not.
• Deterministic systems' characteristics can be predicted in detail as opposed to stochastic (random).
• System types can be physical versus conceptual.
• Systems can be natural or artificial (human-created).
• System thinking identifies relationships between each component, and requires:
  • Conceptual ability
  • Holistic perspective
  • Dynamic understanding
  • Making concepts into reality
  • Paying attention to interrelationships
  • Analyzing systemic structure on a complex situation
  • Understanding change, uncertainty, and complexity to create harmony and drive thought action
• System thinking is needed because of increasing interdependence and complexity.
• System thinking uses common language to understand uncertainty and complexity and links cause and effect as well as the understanding of loops consisting of related elements.
• A paradigm shift in system thinking involves moving from linear to causality, reactive to anticipative, partial to holistic, snapshot to processes, static to dynamic, and structure to network.
• Shifting to system thinking allows for greater leverage and strategic advantages explaining hidden assumptions and unseen consequences.
• System thinkers see interconnectedness, structure, patterns, and processes.
• Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) help in understanding the system and its components.
• The Iceberg phenomenon can be used to explain reality by showing that events are only the tip of the iceberg and what is actually happening, systemic structures, and mental models influence events.
• Hard system thinking uses general system theory, considered the most influential, for:
  • Systems Engineering to solve identified problems
  • Systems Analysis to assist in rational decision making
  • Operations Research to produce scientific methods for solving problems
• These three functions conduct investigations and rationalize means to achieve goals because of the systemic nature of the world.
• The hard system approach is used to model the world and uses a technical approach.
• Soft system thinking focuses on human activities which are generally unclear in boundaries and purpose, making it hard to determine accurate performance.
• Problems in soft systems are unstructured which are investigated by investigating how the problem was formed.
• Soft systems methodological approaches use soft system thinking involving:
  • Unclear problems
  • Varying stakeholder interpretation
  • Important human factors
  • Creative or Intuitive approach
  • Better understanding (not absolute solution)
• Hard problems and soft problems differ, requiring different approaches. Hard problems can be well-defined. Soft problems are difficult to define
• Soft systems methodology involves stages: unstructured problem situation, expressed problem situation, root definitions of relevant systems, conceptual models, comparison, debate, and action.
• Information is often unclear and multi-interpretable.
• Information communicates meaning through signs, signals, or symbols, and involves at least two parties, a sender and a receiver, delivered through media with stated intent.
• Semiotics studies information, signs, language etc and components of communication that are meaningful (verbal and non-verbal.)
• Stamper (1973) divides sign and sign-systems into 4 parts:
  • Empirics: physical characteristic of the medium
  • Syntactics: study of logic and grammar in language which consists of Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax
  • Semantics: Study of meaning; including interpretation and linguistic signs within a meaningful triangle of symbol, referent and concept
  • Pragmatics: context and culture of communication
• Communication is a social phenomenon influenced by social systems.
• Factors affect human behavior in communication including culture, norm, role, status, power, and authority.

Organization and Management Theory

• Organization is when two or more people work in a structured manner to achieve goals by Stoner
• Formal organizations have clear structures, roles, and documented objectives while informal ones are driven by personal interests and less documented.
• Organizational theory includes action perspective/bottom-up and institutional perspective/top-down.
• Action perspective focuses on the organizing process involving coordination, subjective representation, networking, production, and construction.
• Institutional perspective involves an independent social structure with actions governed objectively and focuses on the overall function, dividing into specific departments.
• Three principles of Taylor include:
  • Management's operation and worker's task
  • Task evaluation and improvement
  • Efficient methods for work efficiency
• Organizations as systems are open and connected while organizations as environments are shaped by influences.
• Organizations as information processors uses information for better decision-making.
• Structuration theory is related to action perspective. Social structure created by humans emerges from action and is a cyclical process.
• Organizational Structure views a static perspective, in representation as a relationship map of:
  • Employees
  • Suppliers
  • Customers
  • Services
• Organizational structure divides, organizes and coordinated activities.
• Three formal aspects of organizational structure include:
  • Division of labor: What is divided is the work and there is a limit to specialization to prevent negative psychological effects
  • Chain of command and control: hierarchy, power and authority (span of control)
  • Specifications of rules and procedures, for medium to large organizations which regulates how work is done
• Organization types are based on span of control which can be:
  • Functional, logical and fundamental, suitable for a single location
  • Product or Market organization, dividing departments into semiautonomous units
  • Matrix - with different structures at once
• Organizing establishes a structural function to achieve goals through continuous processes like managerial coordination on vertical and horizontal levels.
• Management is a process of cooperation to achieve goals and its efficiency is measured through the number of resources needed to achieve a goal and effectiveness is measured by the ability to correctly achieve a goal.
• Five management functions include:
  • Control
  • Planning
  • Leading
  • Organization
  • Staffing
• Managerial Roles are classified by Henry Mintzberg's into:
  • Interpersonal: figurehead, leader, and liaison
  • Informational: monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson
  • Decisional: entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator
• Types of managers are classified by position:
  • Top: Strategic planning
  • Middle: Management control
  • First line: operational control
• General managers oversee units. Functional managers oversee functional areas.
• The characteristics of information by levels from top to first level includes environmental strategic planning summaries and requires internal details.
• Managerial skills by position depend on the position.
• Three streams of management theory:
  • Classical streams which studies work processes to find the most efficient way
  • Behavioral Streams which recognizes the human factor
  • Management Science stream
• Integration of the three streams of thought applies:
  • Systems Approach
  • Contingency approach
  • Dynamic engagement
• Henry Fayol's 14 management principles:
  • Division of labor
  • Authority
  • Discipline
  • Unity of command
  • Unity of direction
  • Individual interest < common good
  • Remuneration
  • Centralization
  • Hierarchy
  • Order
  • Equity
  • Stability of staff
  • Initiative
  • Esprit de corps
• Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs: psychological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
• Douglas McGregor:
  • Theory X: People are lazy, negative, and need direction with force, money, or praise.
  • Theory Y: People enjoy achievements and strive for positivity, therefore reward

Information Technology

• Information Technology definition and components:
  • Hardware
  • Software
  • Communication Technology
  • Data
• An Information System (IS) is a set of interrelated components working together to gather, process, store, and disseminate information.
• An IS supports items such as: - Business Operations - Data Reporting - Data Analysis - Decision Making - Communications - Coordination
• An IS includes a feedback mechanism to monitor and control its operation.
• Information flow complexity raises as the number of members within the organization increases. The formula to calculate the flow is defined as 0.5 x N x(N - 1) where N = total people involved.
• An information system model includes data, hardware, software, databases, networks, facilities, and people.
• Data are facts with little meaning
• An information processor converts data into information.
• Information is data processed and made meaningful.
• The computer-based information system (CBIS) combines hardware, software, and telecommunication networks designed to collect, create, and distribute useful data.
• Organizations apply the Leavitt's Diamond model to introduce new systems in the workplace to:
  • Lower Stress
  • Encourage Teamwork
  • Raise Probability of Successful Implementation
• Leavitt's Diamond consists of Process, People, Technology Infrastructure, Structure
• People make a difference between success and failure in all organizations, are the most important element, must be well-trained, and understand the need for the information system.
• Technology infrastructure includes all of its hardware, software, databases, networks, and services supplied by third parties and forms the foundation for every computer-based IS and meets organizational needs in its applications.
• A process is a structured set of activities involving input from raw materials, data, and output through finished products and reports.
• A procedure defines the steps to follow for how to enter a customer order, how to pay an invoice, and how to request an inventory report.
• An organization's structure defines relationships among members.
• A chain of activities that an organization performs to transform inputs into outputs is known as the 'Value Chain.'
• The 'Supply Chain' is a key value chain that consists of:
  • Inbound logistics
  • Manufacturing
  • Marketing
  • Sales
  • Services
• Levels of CBIS: Strategic Plannings, Management Control, Operational Control
• Consequences of implementation are:
  • Establishment of an IT/CBIS Management Unit
  • It Expert Hiring
  • IT- Related equipment
  • Allocation of Funds/Operations
  • End Users must know how to computer
• An Information Specialist is responsible for computer-based IT with categories of System Analyst, Database Administrators, Network Specialist, Programmers and Operators working within the services unit.
• End users are categorized with different knowledge and skills in using CBIS applications like menu level, command and programmer level. Benefits include workload reduction etc
• End User Computing (EUC) is when users themselves develop CBIS.
• The Systems may not align with organizational goals, poor design/ lack of documentation. Why do they use it? Systems, Computer Literacy, hardware.
• Computer Based Information System (CBIS) development is similar to living organisms by following - planning, analysis, design, implementation and use. The cycle takes months to years.
• Phases In 'Computer Based Information System', managers do the defining of problems that the information specialist supports.
• Systems range from personal to workgroup, enterprise, and interorganizational.
• The requirements by IS professionals involve skills in web design, management, audit systems along with data center operations, communication skills and knowledge in cloud computing etc
• Professional careers and skills include web development, programming, system analysis and also the skills of good written/verbal communication.
• Job roles include the chief information officer, software developer, information analyst, systems analyst, web developer and business analyst.
• Professionals who work for large firms are data scientists.
• Certification and education are important and it will help open doors to career possibilities.
• Shadow IT refers to information systems or solutions built and deployed by departments outside a traditional IS department.