Syntax and Structural Ambiguity 12.1

Syntax Epilogue

• Syntax is the study of sentence structure.
• Sentences can be structurally ambiguous, meaning the same surface structure can have multiple interpretations.
• Examples of structural ambiguity were provided.

Structural Ambiguity

• Syntactic surface structures can be compatible with different analyses, leading to subtle differences in meaning.
• Example sentences were presented demonstrating this ambiguity with explanations.

Multiple Analysis

• Certain language structures cause problems for discrete analysis.
• Example sentences (e.g., "Mrs. Jenkins looked after our parrot during the holidays") were used to illustrate structural ambiguity, highlighting two possible interpretations.
• Arguments for each interpretation of the sentence were listed.

Gradience

• Syntactic categories may not be discrete.
• Adjectives and adverbs can exhibit a gradient, rather than a fixed boundary.
• A table comparing adjectives (e.g., "hungry", "infinite") with adverbs (e.g., "soon", "abroad") demonstrated this gradient.
• An illustration of "gradient of adjectivity" showed different words along a spectrum, ranging from verb-like to adjective-like to adverb-like.

Lexicology and Semantics

Semantics

• Aristotle (4th century BCE) believed spoken words symbolize mental experiences.

• Written words symbolize spoken words.

• Speech holds priority over writing.

• Mental experiences are the same across languages.

• Different languages have different speech sounds, but the mental experiences are the same.

• The translation used comes from On Interpretation 1 and was by E. M. EDGHILL.

• Different languages may use different words for similar concepts (extralinguistic reality).

• The example shows different languages using different words for the same object or idea.

• Languages represent reality (extralinguistic reality), a different way compared to grammatical structures, leading to different ways to express thought.

• The method of classifying types (e.g., animals) is arbitrary (dependent on human classification criteria).

Traditional Classification

• Traditional categories are defined by a checklist of shared properties.
• Membership is binary (in or out).
• Examples (e.g., "bird") with their defining characteristics were listed.

Prototype Theory

• Categories are based on overall similarity with a central (prototypical) member.
• Good examples and less good examples exist within a category.
• Category boundaries can be fuzzy.
• An example of a prototypical bird (e.g., robin) and other birds (e.g., penguin, ostrich) were used to illustrate this.

More Complex Semantic Structures

• Words are organized in coherent structures reflecting world knowledge.
• Frames are patterns or situations with functional slots (e.g., "desktop computer," "children's birthday party").
• Scripts are sequences of events (e.g., "dining out").
• Examples of frames and scripts were provided.

The Meanings of Meaning

• Meaning has different components.
• Sense is the meaning independent of utterance. This meaning is derived from semantic relations within the system.
• Denotation is the concept (e.g., cat) of a category associated with an expression.
• Connotation adds associations (e.g., fuzzy, fluffy) to a term.
• Reference is the relationship between the utterance and the extralinguistic reality.
• Langue and Parole are described as components of the conceptual frame.

The Meanings of a Word

Polysemy

• Polysemy is the presence of multiple meanings for a word.
• Example: star (celestial body, symbol, celebrity).
• The meanings of a polysemous word are often historically related.
• The meanings are sometimes different but synchronically similar (e.g., "pupil" in the eye vs. pupil at school)

Homonymy

• Homonymy refers to the formal identity of different words with distinct meanings.
• Example: bat (animal) and bat (baseball).
• Homonyms are different than the polysemous words, as the semantic relationship is a coincidence.

Metaphor

• Metaphor is based on perceived similarity.
• Examples: "He's the father of computer science."
• A mapping takes place from one domain to another.
• Examples: "Knowledge is light," "Good is up."

Metonymy

• Metonymy is based on contiguity (co-occurrence) in reality.
• Example: "I hate to read Heidegger" (the author's work.)
• The relationship is close but not directly analogous.

Syntagmatic Semantics

• Collocation is statistically frequent co-occurrence of words (e.g., "blond hair," "rancid butter").
• Selection restrictions: certain words are limited to certain contexts. (e.g., As we sailed up the Ganges we saw dozens of dead bodies swimming down the river.)