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Questions and Answers
Which functional category best describes the phrase 'on the table' in the sentence 'The book is on the table'?
Which functional category best describes the phrase 'on the table' in the sentence 'The book is on the table'?
In the sentence 'Running a marathon is challenging,' what is the grammatical function of 'Running a marathon'?
In the sentence 'Running a marathon is challenging,' what is the grammatical function of 'Running a marathon'?
Identify the predicate in the sentence: 'The cat quickly chased the mouse.'
Identify the predicate in the sentence: 'The cat quickly chased the mouse.'
In the sentence 'She considers him a genius', what is the function of 'a genius'?
In the sentence 'She considers him a genius', what is the function of 'a genius'?
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Which verb type does not require a complement?
Which verb type does not require a complement?
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Which of the following is an example of a dummy subject?
Which of the following is an example of a dummy subject?
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Which of the following best defines an adjunct?
Which of the following best defines an adjunct?
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In the sentence 'I consider him to be a talented artist', what is the function of the phrase 'to be a talented artist?'
In the sentence 'I consider him to be a talented artist', what is the function of the phrase 'to be a talented artist?'
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Which of the following best describes a non-prototypical sentence structure?
Which of the following best describes a non-prototypical sentence structure?
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Identify the primary distinction between a compound sentence and a complex sentence.
Identify the primary distinction between a compound sentence and a complex sentence.
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What structural property defines a relative clause?
What structural property defines a relative clause?
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Which of the following best describes the primary focus of syntax?
Which of the following best describes the primary focus of syntax?
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How does a 'zero option' manifest within complement clauses?
How does a 'zero option' manifest within complement clauses?
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What is a key characteristic of syntactic ambiguity?
What is a key characteristic of syntactic ambiguity?
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What is the key characteristic of a sentence with a 'compound-complex' structure?
What is the key characteristic of a sentence with a 'compound-complex' structure?
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In a sentence, what is the function of an adjunct?
In a sentence, what is the function of an adjunct?
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In Systemic Functional Grammar, how would you describe the participants in a sentence with an 'action' process?
In Systemic Functional Grammar, how would you describe the participants in a sentence with an 'action' process?
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What distinguishes a declarative clause from other clause types?
What distinguishes a declarative clause from other clause types?
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What is the role of an 'agent' in terms of semantic roles?
What is the role of an 'agent' in terms of semantic roles?
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Which of the following sentences is an example of an exclamatory clause?
Which of the following sentences is an example of an exclamatory clause?
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What is the role of 'embedding' in syntactic analysis?
What is the role of 'embedding' in syntactic analysis?
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How does a 'Phraseological Unit' (PU) differ from a 'Free Word Group'?
How does a 'Phraseological Unit' (PU) differ from a 'Free Word Group'?
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When describing sentence structure, what is the main difference between a complement and an adjunct?
When describing sentence structure, what is the main difference between a complement and an adjunct?
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Which sentence demonstrates the use of an indirect object?
Which sentence demonstrates the use of an indirect object?
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Study Notes
Syntax vs. Grammar
- Syntax: the rules and structures of languages (a branch of linguistics)
- Grammar: the rules of a particular language (e.g., English grammar)
- Descriptive grammar: observes the rules
- Prescriptive grammar: establishes the 'correct' vs 'incorrect' rules, also includes morphological features (e.g., verb conjugation, singular/plural nouns).
Units of Language
- Phrase: one or more words within a sentence that functions as a single unit
- Clause: A unit of language that typically includes at least a subject and a verb, and can also include other elements such as an object, complement, or an adverbial
- Sentence: a complete unit of expression containing a subject and a verb
Basic Principles of Syntax
- Linear Order: The order in which words combine to create sentences.
- The order of words in sentences helps determine grammaticality and meaning.
Constituency (Hierarchical Structure)
- A constituent is a linguistic part of a larger sentence, phrase, or clause
- Constituents can be a morpheme, word, phrase, or clause.
- Importantly, all phrases are constituents, but not all constituents are phrases.
Describing Constituents
- Noun Phrase (NP): contains at minimum one noun (head) and can also have premodifiers (determiner, adjective, adverbs), or qualifiers (adverb, adjective)
- Verb Phrase (VP): contains a verb, and can have auxiliary verbs (+ completors)
- Adverbial Phrase (AdvP): typically modifies a verb, or can start with a preposition or look like a prepositional phrase.
- Prepositional Phrase (PrepP): always has a preposition and a noun phrase
- Adjectival Phrase(AdjP): has an adjective as its head
Features of Syntactic Constituents
- Recursion: the ability to place one constituent inside another.
- Question Test: whether a word group makes sense when asked a question about the meaning
- Substitution Test: can be replaced with a pronoun or a pronoun phrase without changing meaning
- Moving Test: moving constituent around in a sentence without changing meaning suggests it form a constituent.
Immediate Constituents Analysis (ICA)
- Aims at understanding sentence structure and meaning.
- Breaks down sentences into their constituent parts.
Syntactic Ambiguity
- Different possible meanings a sentence can have.
- Tree diagrams can help illustrate different meanings.
Functional Aspects of Syntax
- Subject: what carries out the action of the verb
- Predicate: something about what the subject does
- Complement: completes the meaning of the predicate
- Adjunct: extra details about circumstances, actions or time.
Prototypical Sentence Structure
- Subjects are typically Noun Phrases, but may be an infinitive, material that is quoted or a gerund.
- Material/Quoted/Gerund: examples given, such as "To be or not to be..."
- Predicates are verb forms, with transitive verbs requiring a complement, and intransitive verbs needing no complement.
Complements
- Direct/Indirect Object: receive action of the verb (examples given).
- Subject Complement: tells us more about the subject (examples given)
- Adverbial Complement: gives extra information about predicate, often prepositional phrases (examples given).
Adjuncts
- Provide additional information, such as a range of circumstances (e.g. adverbs, prepositional phrases).
- Are removable from the sentence without changing grammaticality.
English Sentence Structure
- SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) is the typical order for affirmative sentences in English
Clause Structure
- Adjunct: expands on a clause providing extra information (time, place, manner, etc.).
- Subordinate Clause: has its own subject and verb but cannot stand alone.
English Clause Types
- Coordination: Joining similar elements (clauses or words) side-by-side using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so.)
- Subordination: Joining clauses of different grammatical type that cannot stand alone.
Relative Clauses
- Modification to a noun phrase using relative pronouns (that, which, who)
Adverbial Clauses
- Subordinating conjunctions (if, when, because, while).
- Elaborates on time, reasons, etc., in relation to a main clause.
Complement Clauses
- Functions as a noun phrase that completes the meaning of the main clause.
Simple Sentences
- Only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb.
Compound Sentences
- Consists of two or more simple sentences joined together using a coordinating conjunction.
Complex Sentences
- Consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Compound-Complex Sentences
- Combines subordination and coordination in a sentence
Systemic Functional Grammar (Optional)
- Grammar as rules viewed as a system not rules
- A resource-based theory that looks at the function of language in the context of its use
Semantic Roles
- Agent: The participant carrying out the action (examples given).
- Patient: The participant affected by the action (examples given)
- Recipients/benefactives: Indirect objects who benefit from the action (examples given).
- Time/Place/Source/Goal/Instrument: Locations, time, source of actions, targets of the action, tools used
Verb Phrase
- Main Verbs: The core of the verb phrase
- Auxiliaries: (helper verbs) assisting main verbs (e.g. be, have, do).
Tense and Aspects
- Tense: The time frame of the action, including past, present and future.
- Aspect: The duration and completion of events – (e.g. progressive - ongoing, perfect - completed).
Phraseology
- Phraseological Units (PUs): Fixed expressions with a meaning that differs from the sum of its component words.
- Classification: Traditional Phrases/Phraseological Combinations/Idioms
Examples of PUs
- Multiple examples given across a range of categories.
Syntactic Description of PUs
- Details of how PUs are structured via examples of PUs including nominal, verbal, adjectival and prepositional.
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Description
Test your understanding of syntax and grammatical functions in sentences. This quiz covers various topics, including predicates, complements, and sentence structures. Perfect for students and enthusiasts of linguistics.
