Syntax and Sentence Structure Quiz

Syntax vs. Grammar

• Syntax: the rules and structures of languages (a branch of linguistics)
• Grammar: the rules of a particular language (e.g., English grammar)
• Descriptive grammar: observes the rules
• Prescriptive grammar: establishes the 'correct' vs 'incorrect' rules, also includes morphological features (e.g., verb conjugation, singular/plural nouns).

Units of Language

• Phrase: one or more words within a sentence that functions as a single unit
• Clause: A unit of language that typically includes at least a subject and a verb, and can also include other elements such as an object, complement, or an adverbial
• Sentence: a complete unit of expression containing a subject and a verb

Basic Principles of Syntax

• Linear Order: The order in which words combine to create sentences.
• The order of words in sentences helps determine grammaticality and meaning.

Constituency (Hierarchical Structure)

• A constituent is a linguistic part of a larger sentence, phrase, or clause
• Constituents can be a morpheme, word, phrase, or clause.
• Importantly, all phrases are constituents, but not all constituents are phrases.

Describing Constituents

• Noun Phrase (NP): contains at minimum one noun (head) and can also have premodifiers (determiner, adjective, adverbs), or qualifiers (adverb, adjective)
• Verb Phrase (VP): contains a verb, and can have auxiliary verbs (+ completors)
• Adverbial Phrase (AdvP): typically modifies a verb, or can start with a preposition or look like a prepositional phrase.
• Prepositional Phrase (PrepP): always has a preposition and a noun phrase
• Adjectival Phrase(AdjP): has an adjective as its head

Features of Syntactic Constituents

• Recursion: the ability to place one constituent inside another.
• Question Test: whether a word group makes sense when asked a question about the meaning
• Substitution Test: can be replaced with a pronoun or a pronoun phrase without changing meaning
• Moving Test: moving constituent around in a sentence without changing meaning suggests it form a constituent.

Immediate Constituents Analysis (ICA)

• Aims at understanding sentence structure and meaning.
• Breaks down sentences into their constituent parts.

Syntactic Ambiguity

• Different possible meanings a sentence can have.
• Tree diagrams can help illustrate different meanings.

Functional Aspects of Syntax

• Subject: what carries out the action of the verb
• Predicate: something about what the subject does
• Complement: completes the meaning of the predicate
• Adjunct: extra details about circumstances, actions or time.

Prototypical Sentence Structure

• Subjects are typically Noun Phrases, but may be an infinitive, material that is quoted or a gerund.
• Material/Quoted/Gerund: examples given, such as "To be or not to be..."
• Predicates are verb forms, with transitive verbs requiring a complement, and intransitive verbs needing no complement.

Complements

• Direct/Indirect Object: receive action of the verb (examples given).
• Subject Complement: tells us more about the subject (examples given)
• Adverbial Complement: gives extra information about predicate, often prepositional phrases (examples given).

Adjuncts

• Provide additional information, such as a range of circumstances (e.g. adverbs, prepositional phrases).
• Are removable from the sentence without changing grammaticality.

English Sentence Structure

• SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) is the typical order for affirmative sentences in English

Clause Structure

• Adjunct: expands on a clause providing extra information (time, place, manner, etc.).
• Subordinate Clause: has its own subject and verb but cannot stand alone.

English Clause Types

• Coordination: Joining similar elements (clauses or words) side-by-side using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so.)
• Subordination: Joining clauses of different grammatical type that cannot stand alone.

Relative Clauses

• Modification to a noun phrase using relative pronouns (that, which, who)

Adverbial Clauses

• Subordinating conjunctions (if, when, because, while).
• Elaborates on time, reasons, etc., in relation to a main clause.

Complement Clauses

• Functions as a noun phrase that completes the meaning of the main clause.

Simple Sentences

• Only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb.

Compound Sentences

• Consists of two or more simple sentences joined together using a coordinating conjunction.

Complex Sentences

• Consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Compound-Complex Sentences

• Combines subordination and coordination in a sentence

Systemic Functional Grammar (Optional)

• Grammar as rules viewed as a system not rules
• A resource-based theory that looks at the function of language in the context of its use

Semantic Roles

• Agent: The participant carrying out the action (examples given).
• Patient: The participant affected by the action (examples given)
• Recipients/benefactives: Indirect objects who benefit from the action (examples given).
• Time/Place/Source/Goal/Instrument: Locations, time, source of actions, targets of the action, tools used

Verb Phrase

• Main Verbs: The core of the verb phrase
• Auxiliaries: (helper verbs) assisting main verbs (e.g. be, have, do).

Tense and Aspects

• Tense: The time frame of the action, including past, present and future.
• Aspect: The duration and completion of events – (e.g. progressive - ongoing, perfect - completed).

Phraseology

• Phraseological Units (PUs): Fixed expressions with a meaning that differs from the sum of its component words.
• Classification: Traditional Phrases/Phraseological Combinations/Idioms

Examples of PUs

• Multiple examples given across a range of categories.

Syntactic Description of PUs

• Details of how PUs are structured via examples of PUs including nominal, verbal, adjectival and prepositional.