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What major development convulsed Christendom in the 16th century?
What major development convulsed Christendom in the 16th century?
The Reformation
Which of the following were key figures in the Protestant Reformation?
Which of the following were key figures in the Protestant Reformation?
What event is referred to as the "Great Schism"?
What event is referred to as the "Great Schism"?
The period from 1378 to 1417 when there were two competing popes.
What role did John Wycliffe play in the Reformation?
What role did John Wycliffe play in the Reformation?
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What was Jan Hus known for?
What was Jan Hus known for?
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What was the significance of the Bonfires of Vanities?
What was the significance of the Bonfires of Vanities?
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What was Erasmus of Rotterdam's role?
What was Erasmus of Rotterdam's role?
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Martin Luther, born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483, was initially a...
Martin Luther, born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483, was initially a...
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What inspired Martin Luther to question the Catholic Church's teachings?
What inspired Martin Luther to question the Catholic Church's teachings?
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Luther's challenge to the Church began with his famous...
Luther's challenge to the Church began with his famous...
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Luther's actions made him unpopular with German princes and commoners.
Luther's actions made him unpopular with German princes and commoners.
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What was Pope Leo X's response to Luther's growing popularity?
What was Pope Leo X's response to Luther's growing popularity?
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What pamphlet did Luther publish in August 1520?
What pamphlet did Luther publish in August 1520?
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What was Luther's position on sacraments?
What was Luther's position on sacraments?
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Luther's defiance of the Pope and the Emperor resulted in his ...
Luther's defiance of the Pope and the Emperor resulted in his ...
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What is the significance of the Diet of Worms?
What is the significance of the Diet of Worms?
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How did Luther escape punishment?
How did Luther escape punishment?
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What did Luther accomplish during his retreat?
What did Luther accomplish during his retreat?
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How did the Peasant War impact the Reformation?
How did the Peasant War impact the Reformation?
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The term "Protestant" emerged from the protest against...
The term "Protestant" emerged from the protest against...
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Who wrote the Augsburg Confession?
Who wrote the Augsburg Confession?
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Who led the first attack against Rome in Switzerland?
Who led the first attack against Rome in Switzerland?
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How did Zwingli's death impact the Reformation in Switzerland?
How did Zwingli's death impact the Reformation in Switzerland?
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What key belief distinguished Calvin's teachings?
What key belief distinguished Calvin's teachings?
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How did Calvin introduce democracy in church organization?
How did Calvin introduce democracy in church organization?
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What is the connection between John Knox, Calvinism and Presbyterianism?
What is the connection between John Knox, Calvinism and Presbyterianism?
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What is the significance of the Protestant Revolt?
What is the significance of the Protestant Revolt?
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What distinctive feature characterized the spread of Protestantism in England?
What distinctive feature characterized the spread of Protestantism in England?
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Under whose reign did England become truly Protestant?
Under whose reign did England become truly Protestant?
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The Catholic Reformation involved a movement to improve the Catholic faith.
The Catholic Reformation involved a movement to improve the Catholic faith.
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Which of these initiatives were part of the Catholic Reformation?
Which of these initiatives were part of the Catholic Reformation?
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What was the main objective of the Council of Trent?
What was the main objective of the Council of Trent?
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The Council of Trent condemned the Protestant view that the Bible is the only guide to salvation.
The Council of Trent condemned the Protestant view that the Bible is the only guide to salvation.
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What was the purpose of the Index of Forbidden Books?
What was the purpose of the Index of Forbidden Books?
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What role did the Inquisition play in the Catholic Reformation?
What role did the Inquisition play in the Catholic Reformation?
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Who founded the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits?
Who founded the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits?
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How did the Society of Jesus contribute to the Catholic Reformation?
How did the Society of Jesus contribute to the Catholic Reformation?
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What fundamental difference distinguished the Catholic Church from Protestant denominations?
What fundamental difference distinguished the Catholic Church from Protestant denominations?
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Protestant denominations tend to have variations in certain doctrinal teachings.
Protestant denominations tend to have variations in certain doctrinal teachings.
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What was the primary impact of the Reformation on religious unity in Western Europe?
What was the primary impact of the Reformation on religious unity in Western Europe?
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The Reformation led to the widespread spread of religious wars in Europe.
The Reformation led to the widespread spread of religious wars in Europe.
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What key reform did the Reformation introduce into the Catholic Church?
What key reform did the Reformation introduce into the Catholic Church?
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What major conflict emerged from the Reformation?
What major conflict emerged from the Reformation?
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What did the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) accomplish?
What did the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) accomplish?
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Study Notes
The Reformation and Religious Wars
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The Reformation was a significant development in the 16th century, marking the beginning of modern history. It was a two-sided affair:
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Protestant Reformation (religious revolt against the Vatican) led by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other religious reformers
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Catholic Church Reformation (reforms within the Catholic Church)
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The removal of the papal seat from Rome to Avignon (France) lasted nearly 70 years (1309-1376).
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The "Great Schism" (1378-1417) impacted the Papacy.
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The rise of strong national states challenged the authority of the Popes.
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The Renaissance sparked an intellectual revolution.
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Key figures who paved the way for religious revolution include:
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John Wycliffe of England: Oxford Professor who advocated selling church properties, simpler clergy lives and the sole guide to morality from scripture
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John Huss of Bohemia: translated the Bible into English, preached Wycliffe's ideas and was condemned by the Church Council of Constance (1414), burned at the stake.
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Savonarola boldly denounced corruption and luxury of society including clergy and nobles, drove away the ruling Medici Family in Florence, established the Republic of Florence and was responsible for the 'Bonfires of Vanities'.
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Erasmus of Rotterdam, a Dutch humanist, advocated for reforming the clergy’s behavior in his 'Praise of Folly'.
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Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German Augustinian monk, was the son of a poor miner and born in Eisleben, Germany on November 10, 1483. He received a good education at the University of Erfurt, and became a theology professor at the University of Wittenberg.
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Between 1514 and 1518, Luther was troubled by salvation and questioning the Church's teachings. He read scripture on salvation ("For in it (in Christ) is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith." (Romans 1:17). This reading profoundly changed his belief and understanding.
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Luther's Break from Rome: The manner in which John Tetzel, a Dominican friar, sold indulgences to raise funds for Rome aroused Luther's indignation, leading to his 95 Theses.
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Luther posted his 95 Theses on the church door in Wittenberg, attacking the selling of indulgences and challenging anyone to debate the Church's claims.
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After a confrontation with Tetzel, and receiving a negative reaction, Luther posted his theses to the Pope, leading to papal backlash and condemnation of Luther and his ideas.
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Luther's Appeal to the German people and his burning of the Papal Bull, and his resulting excommunication
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In August 1520, Luther wrote a pamphlet addressing the Christian Nobility of the German Nation; advocating to reform the defects of the Church and stop all payments to Rome. He further advocated for the abolition of religious orders and the right for clergy to marry.
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In his second pamphlet, The Babylonian Captivity of the Christian Church, Luther tried to destroy the Catholic Church's sacramental systems. He accepted only three sacraments - baptism, communion, and confession.
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Emperor Charles V excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521.
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Luther was offered one last chance to recant his views, but refused. He was proclaimed a heretic and an outlaw, but permitted to leave Worms. He was then secretly kidnapped/taken to Wartburg Castle, there he translated the Bible into German, enhancing his popularity.
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The Peasant War: The poor peasants in South Germany took advantage of Luther’s revolt to rise up against their feudal lords in 1524, following certain religious fanatics who claimed religious inspiration. The revolt was suppressed in 1525 by the feudal lords at great cost. It was a bloody revolt which resulted in the loss of 50,000 lives and, as a result, Luther lost prestige in South Germany.
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The Second Diet of Spires (1529): The majority of the South German Catholic members banned Luther’s doctrines. The minority group, representing the North German cities, protested the action of the Diet. This protest marked the origination of the term "Protestant."
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Philip Melanchthon wrote the creed of Lutheran teachings which he submitted to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. The Diet rejected it but became the accepted credo for the Lutheran Church and was known as the Augsburg Confession.
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Spread of the Protestant Movement:
- Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), a Swiss Catholic priest, led the first attack against the Pope in 1523, challenged veneration of Saints, rejected the authority of the Pope and proclaimed the Bible as the only guide for salvation. His ideas split the Swiss cantons in 1531 into religious factions, and led to a war where Zwingli was killed in battle.
- John Calvin (1509-1564), a French lawyer, fled religious persecution in France and settled in Geneva, where he became a political and religious dictator. Geneva became a Puritan commonwealth with festivals, theaters and personal expressions being suppressed. Calvinism spread to Scotland as Presbyterianism, to England as Puritanism, and to Bohemia.
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The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation): The Protestant revolt jolted the Catholic Church to action. Key responses were the Council of Trent, the Inquisition, the Society of Jesus. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) recognized the Pope as the infallible head of the Catholic Church, reaffirmed the validity of the Catholic doctrines, sacraments, saints and the Mass - and outlined new standards of conduct for clergy.
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The Society of Jesus (Jesuits): Played a large role in the Catholic Reformation. Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier, was the Society’s founder. The Jesuits renounced rough military life and dedicated themselves to the service of God, studied philosophy and theology at famous Universities such as Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris. They organized the Society of Jesus, with their own specialized organization and vowed obedience to the Pope.
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Initially militant crusaders for the Church, they proved courageous; strong of character and high intellect. The Jesuits excelled as preachers, and effectively established schools and colleges in Western Europe which became centers of Catholic learning.
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The Jesuits exerted great influence on European Politics - advising kings and queens and receiving high honors for the Catholic Church through their strong achievements.
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The Council of Trent, by reaffirming the Catholic doctrines, sacraments, saints, and the Mass, and prescribing high standards of conduct resulted in the further suppression of Protestantism, mostly in Southern Europe. The Jesuits were largely responsible for reversing the momentum of the Protestant revolt.
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The Religious Wars: Several wars emerged as a result of the Reformation, including the Schmalkaldic War (1547-1555) between the Catholic League, and the Protestant princes, resulting in a treaty permitting Lutherans to exist in Germany. The Huguenot Wars (fought by French Calvinists) against the Catholic French monarchs, Kings Francis 11, Charles IX and Henry III, and their Catholic mother, Quen Catherine de Medici. These wars were ended by the ascension of King Henry IV, who granted the Huguenots freedom of religious worship.
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The War of the Protestant Independence (1566-1609): Also known as the Dutch War, King Philip II of Spain fought to conquer Protestant England, but failed when the English victory over the Spanish armada (1588) gave England the title 'Mistress of the Sea'.
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The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648): Struggles between Catholics and Protestants for supremacy in Germany. The war involved Catholic and Protestant powers such as Spain and France, and Denmark and Sweden. The war ended by the Treaty of Westphalia, which recognized the equality of Catholic and Protestant religions and ended the religious wars.
Differences Between Catholics and Protestants
- Catholics are united under the Pope in the Vatican, while Protestants are divided into numerous sects like Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, etc.
- The Catholic Church is considered universal, while numerous Protestant sects are national in focus.
- Catholic clergy cannot marry, whereas Protestant clergy can.
- Catholicism accepts papal authority, relics, saints, and the sacraments; these concepts are rejected by Protestants, who regard faith in Christ alone as the sole guide to salvation.
Results of the Reformation
- The Reformation destroyed religious unity in Western Europe, dividing it into Catholic and Protestant regions.
- Numerous new religious groups emerged after the Reformation, including Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, Presbyterians, etc.
- The Reformation brought reforms in the Catholic Church, including forbidding clergy to marry and abolishing simony and investiture.
- Religious wars, in which many lives were tragically lost, were directly impacted by the Reformation—one example is the Thirty Years’ War.
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