Support Systems: Hydrostatic, Exo, and Endoskeletons

• Support systems provide rigidity and protection, also acting as a surface for muscle attachment.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

• Facilitates movement alongside exoskeletons and endoskeletons.
• Fluid within individual cells aids muscle movements.
• Example: elephant trunk.

Exoskeletons

• External skeletons are made of stiff material.
• Molluscs: composed of calcium carbonate.
• Arthropods: composed of chitin, a polysaccharide (carbohydrate).

Endoskeletons

• Rigid internal skeletons consist of bones and cartilage.
• Advantages include growth with the animal.
• Supports the weight of large animals.
• It protects vital internal organs.
• Shields against outer tissues.
• Enables flexible, complex movement.

Human Skeletal System

• Supports the body and protects vital organs.
• Functions as sites for muscle attachment.
• Acts as a storage reservoir for ions and produces blood cells.

Bone Growth

• Starts as cartilage, then calcium compounds are added to make bones.

Types of Bones

• Compact bones surround blood vessels and nerves.
• Spongy bones contain red bone marrow, producing red blood cells that fight infections.

Axial Skeleton

• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Thoracic cage (rib cage)
• Sacrum (pelvic bones)
• Coccyx (tail bone)

Skull

• Formed by cranium bones and facial bones.

Vertebral Column

• Superior to inferior: Neck, Thorax, Lower back, Sacrum, tailbone (NTLST).

Rib Cage

• 12 pairs of ribs (24 total).
• True ribs: 7 pairs (14 total), connected to the sternum.
• False ribs: 5 pairs (10 total).
• 3 pairs attached to cartilage (6 total).
• 2 pairs don't attach to the sternum (4 total).

Appendicular Skeleton

• Bones within the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic (hip) regions.
• Attached to limbs.
• The pectoral girdle provides flexibility and the lower limbs are specialized.
• The pelvic girdle is for strength.

Classification of Joints

• Fibrous joints: immovable, found between cranial bones.
• Cartilaginous joints: slightly movable, found between vertebrae.
• Synovial joints: freely movable.

Synovial Joints

• Hinge joints: move in one direction, examples are the knee and elbow.
• Pivot joints: allow rotational movement, example is the neck.
• Ball and socket joints: movement in all planes, example are the hip bones.

Arthritis

• Inflammation of the joints.

Muscular System

• Muscles contract and relax, enabling movement.

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Smooth muscles: involuntary, without striations.
• Cardiac muscles: involuntary, striated.
• Skeletal muscles: voluntary, striated.

Exocrine vs. Endocrine

• Exocrine: Secreted hormone goes into a duct which delivers it to a targeted organ.
• Endocrine: Secretes directly into the bloodstream through blood delivery to the targeted organ.

Hormone Roles

• Homeostasis
• Control metabolism
• Control osmoregulation
• Control digestion
• Control growth
• Control reproduction

Peptide Hormones

• Bond between amino acids and glycoproteins.
• Binds to the receptor of the plasma membrane.
• Has a faster effect on hormones in the body, short-lived.

Steroid Hormones

• Derived from cholesterol, a lipid.
• Enters the cell by moving through the plasma membrane rather than binding.
• Attaches to the nucleus, binding to nuclear or cytoplasmic receptors.
• The hormone-receptor complex binds with DNA and active genes.

Gonads

• Organs that produce gametes.
• Testes (male): produce sperm.
• Ovaries (female): produce eggs.

External vs. Internal Fertilization

• Internal fertilization: occurs inside the body.
• External fertilization: occurs outside the body.

Human Male Reproductive System

• Garreteer for male hormone also called testosterone.

Sperm

• Head: Acrosome and nucleus.
• Middle piece: Assist for movement.
• Tail: Flagellum.

Testosterone

• Major male hormone is responsible for deeper voice, facial hair and height.

Human Female Reproductive System

• Garmete is developed in the uterus.
• Fertilization normally occurs in a uterine tube.

Ovaries, Uterus, and Vagina

• Produces estrogens and progesterone.
• Uterus: Muscular organ.
• Cervix: Narrow end of the uterus.
• Vagina: The good bacteria there is to protect from bad bacteria.

Fertilization & Pregnancy

• Fertilization happens in the uterine tube.
• HCG detects pregnancy

Estrogen and Progesterone

• Causes more rounded appearance.
• Causes Greater fat accumulation than in men.

Control of Human Reproduction

• Not engaging in sexual intercourse, using birth control & condoms and getting vaccine.

Contraceptive Injections and Vaccines

• A hormone against HCG (pregnancy hormones).
• A hormone where sperm don't get fertilized by killing it.

Reproductive Technologies

• Artificial insemination by donor (AID).
• In Vitro Fertilization (IVF).
• Gamete intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT).
• Surrogate mothers give sperm to another person so they can hold the birth by using sperm injection (ICSI).

STD's

• A disease caused by viruses or bacteria.
• Viruses: Aids, Genital herpes, Genital warts, and Hepatitis A and B.
• Bacteria: Chlamydia, Syphilis, and Gonorrheau.
• They can be caused by bacteria, yeast, and protozoan.

Development Definition & Stages

• Changes that occur during the life cycle of an organism.

At the Cellular Level

• Cleavage is cell division without growth.

At the Tissue Level

• 3 layers:
• Ectoderm (outer)
• Endoderm (inner)
• Mesoderm (middle, in between outer and inner)

At the Organ Level

• The nervous system forms first above the notochord, which supports the back and is later replaced by vertebrae.

Developmental Processes

• Cellular differentiation: cells become specialized in structure and function.
• Morphogenesis: produces the shape and form of the body.
• Includes pattern formation.
• Involves apoptosis: programed cell death.

Cellular Differentiation

• Induction: tissues influence the development of other tissues via chemical signals.

Morphogenesis

• Homeotic Genes: dictate which body parts arise and control shapes/patterns; mutations cause different expressions.
• Apoptosis: programed cell death.

Human Embryonic and Fetal Development

• Embryonic development: formation of major organs (3 to 9 months).
• Organs become larger and more refined.
• 1st Trimester: embryonic and fetal development.
• 2nd Trimester: development of organs and organ systems.
• 3rd Trimester: the fetus grows quickly and organ systems become functional.

1st week

• Embryo developes into a fetus.

2nd Week

• Implantation in the wall of the uterus.
• Pregnancy hormone is secreted.

Weeks 3-5

• First nervous
• Second circulatory

4,5

• Head enlarges
• Ears, nose, eyes become more apperent

Weeks 6-8

• The embryo becomes recognizable as human.
• The head achieves a normal relationship with the body.
• The nervous system gets reflexes.
• After week 8, evrything has formed.

Placenta

• By week 10, the placenta is fully formed.
• Exchanges O2 and nutrients and receives CO2 and urea for disposal.

Fetal Development and Birth

• After 16 weeks, a heartbeat is heard.
• Fetuses born at 24 weeks may survive (lungs are still immature).

Preventing Birth Defects

• Avoid Harmful substances, rradiation, and pathogyns, such as viruses.
• Avoid alcohol, smoking, and drug abuse.
• Avoid certain medication and supplements.
• Avoid having X-rays.

Birth Stages

• Hypothalymys: controlles petuetary gland.
• Petuetary gland: produces oxytoncyn.
• Oxytocin: causes ueterus to contract and expel the fetus.
• Process of birth: Dilation of cervix; Birthing of the baby; Placenta comes out.

The Aging Process

• Mitochondria and Diet: high-calorie diets accelerate aging.
• A low-calorie diet slows down aging.
• Brightly colored and dark green vegetables.

Effects of Aging

• Integumentary System: Sagging and wrinkling; inability to maintain homeostasis; less skin pigmentation.
• Cardiovascular System: Hypertension; increased blood pressure; longer time for heart rate and blood pressure to return to normal after stress.
• Immune System: Declined antibody response to vaccines.
• Digestive and Respiratory Systems: Metabolism slows down; increased bacteria; tooth decay; liver becomes less efficient; decreased elasticity of lung tissue.
• Excretory System: Difficulty in maintaining salt-water balance; dehydration faster; urinary incontinence; in males, more frequent urination or difficulty in urination.
• Nervous and Sensory Systems: Reduction in brain size; senses become weaker; difficulty focusing on near objects.
• Musculoskeletal and Endocrine Systems: Decreased muscle mass; loss of height; less bone density; reduced activity of the thyroid gland; lower metabolic rate.
• Reproductive System: In males, less testosterone; in females, no Estrogen and Estrogen (menopause).