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Questions and Answers

What determines the strength of a sensation in the brain?

  • The location of the receptors
  • The frequency of action potential (correct)
  • The type of stimulus applied
  • The duration of the stimulus

    • Which statement is true regarding crude touch?

  • Uses Aβ fibers for afferent transmission
  • Has receptors like Merkel's and Meisner's
  • Is well localized
  • Utilizes the ventral spino-thalamic tract (correct)

    • What describes tactile discrimination?

  • Ability to locate where one point is touched
  • Ability to recognize two points touched as separate (correct)
  • Ability to feel only one point touched
  • Ability to distinguish between temperatures

    • How can the threshold distance for tactile discrimination be decreased?

    <p>By increasing the number of receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT classified as a special sensation?

    <p>Hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of macrophages in nerve regeneration?

    <p>They remove debris and secrete interleukin 1.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stain is used to demonstrate changes in the myelin sheath?

    <p>Osmic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are primarily found in spinal ganglia?

    <p>Unipolar cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic differentiates sympathetic ganglia from spinal ganglia?

    <p>Sympathetic ganglia cells are uniform in size.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the regeneration process of nerve fibers?

    <p>Secretion of substances by Schwann cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the abundance of glial cells compared to neurons in the mammalian brain?

    <p>Glial cells are ten times more abundant than neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Schwann cells during the regeneration of nerve fibers?

    <p>They provide structural support for growing axons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature characterizes the arrangement of cells in spinal ganglia?

    <p>Cells are arranged in rows or groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the structure of the epidermis?

    <p>It is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis is mainly responsible for cell division?

    <p>Stratum Basale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is NOT found in the Stratum Basale of the epidermis?

    <p>Langerhans cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of keratinocytes in the epidermis?

    <p>To accumulate keratin and provide a protective barrier.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the epidermis receive its nutrition?

    <p>Diffusion from the dermis below.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of the Stratum Spinosum?

    <p>Its cells appear to have a prickly appearance due to desmosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of thick (non-hairy) skin?

    <p>Presence of hair follicles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of melanocytes found in the epidermis?

    <p>To synthesize melanin for color and protection against UV radiation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis is notably thicker in thick skin?

    <p>Horny layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are eccrine sweat glands more numerous?

    <p>Thick skin of palms and soles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the dermal papillae in thin skin compared to thick skin?

    <p>They are fewer and more irregular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which appendages are present in thin skin but absent in thick skin?

    <p>Hair follicles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells form the majority of the secretory part of eccrine sweat glands?

    <p>Large clear cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes apocrine sweat glands?

    <p>Less numerous in thin skin of axillary region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the secretion method of eccrine sweat glands from apocrine sweat glands?

    <p>Eccrine uses a merocrine mode, while apocrine uses an apocrine mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature is characteristic of the granular layer in thick skin compared to thin skin?

    <p>Thicker with 3-5 layers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the recurrent laryngeal nerve?

    <p>Supplies all muscles of the larynx except cricothyroid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of the vagus nerve provides sensory innervation to the root of the tongue and epiglottis?

    <p>Internal laryngeal nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve is responsible for parasympathetic innervation to the parotid gland?

    <p>Lesser petrosal nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when the recurrent laryngeal nerve is injured?

    <p>Hoarseness of voice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding the accessory nerve?

    <p>It contains motor fibers only</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which muscle is innervated by the external laryngeal nerve?

    <p>Cricothyroid muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The vagus nerve is responsible for supplying which of the following?

    <p>Sensory to tonsils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of the vagus nerve primarily supplies the pharyngeal muscles?

    <p>Pharyngeal branches</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of general visceral efferent (GVE) fibers?

    <p>Supplying viscera with parasympathetic fibers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which congenital anomaly involves the failure of closure of the cranial neuropore?

    <p>Anencephaly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is derived from the basal lamina of the spinal cord?

    <p>Motor cells in the ventral horn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Meningomyelocele is defined as:

    <p>Part of the spinal cord and meninges protruding through a vertebral defect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structures are formed from the neural crest?

    <p>Suprarenal medulla and Schwann cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrocephalus is primarily caused by:

    <p>Obstruction in the neural tube lumen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about spina bifida?

    <p>It may involve protrusion of spinal cord or meninges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the spinal cord develops into sensory cells?

    <p>Alar lamina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nervous System

    • The nervous system is a complex network consisting of nerve cells (neurons) and glial cells.
    • Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are responsible for transmitting information throughout the body.
    • Glial cells provide support and protection to neurons.
    • Neurons have a cell body (perikaryon) and processes (dendrites and axon).
    • The nucleus is usually large, spherical and euchromatic with a prominent nucleolus.
    • The cytoplasm contains well-developed rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER), ribosomes (polyribosomes), mitochondria, neurofilaments, microtubules, and inclusions like lipofuscin.
    • The Golgi complex surrounds the nucleus.
    • Dendrites receive information.
    • Axons transmit information.
    • Synapses are the junctions between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

    Index

    • The index provides a list of topics covered in the document and their page numbers
    • Each topic contains a large variety of subtopics, for example, the topic "Nervous System" has subtopics such as: "Introduction of nervous system", "Histological structure of Neurons", "Nerve fibers", "Peripheral nerve system" and so on

    Nervous Tissue

    • Nervous tissue is made of nerve cells and glial cells (supportive cells).
    • Neurons are highly specialized cells that receive and transmit information. Larger structures, like the cell body and the long axon form the neuron.
    • A cell body is a receptive part of the neuron and contains nucleus and cytoplasm.
    • Dendrites, which branch and subdivide from the cell body, are responsible for receiving signals.
    • The axon, which is a long extension from the cell body, is responsible transmitting signals to other nerve cells or effectors.

    Ganglia

    • Ganglia are clusters of nerve cells outside the central nervous system.
    • They are covered by a connective tissue capsule.
    • Spinal ganglia contain sensory neurons.
    • Autonomic ganglia contain motor neurons involved in the autonomic nervous system.
    • Cells in ganglia are typically unipolar (pseudounipolar) or multipolar in structure.

    Neuroglia

    • Glial cells are abundant in the CNS (approximately 10 times more numerous than neurons).
    • They surround nerve cell bodies and processes in the CNS.
    • There are various types of glial cells: astrocytes (macropglia), oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
    • Schwann and satellite cells are types in the peripheral nerve system.
    • Their functions range from providing support for neurons to roles in regulating extracellular fluid composition and immune defense.

    Synapse

    • This describes the methods of neurotransmitter transmission from a pre-synaptic neuron to a post-synaptic neuron.
    • Electrical synapses involve the direct flow of electrical current into the post-synaptic neuron.
    • Chemical synapses involve the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles, which may bind to receptors on a post-synaptic neuron activating certain processes.

    Degeneration and regeneration of nerve tissue

    • Retrograde degeneration involves changes in the cell body of a damaged neuron.
    • Wallerian degeneration involves changes in the axon distal to the site of injury.
    • Regeneration occurs in peripheral nerves via Schwann cells forming pathways for growing axons to restore function.

    Central Nervous System (CNS)

    • The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
    • It is responsible for processing information from the body and coordinating responses.
    • It is responsible for controlling everything from simple reflexes to complex thoughts and behaviors.
    • The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater).
    • Spinal cord is a primary channel for information from and to the brain.
    • The CNS contains tracts that carry information from sensory receptors to the brain, and from the brain to muscles and glands.

    Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

    • The PNS comprises nerves and ganglia outside The CNS.
    • It transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
    • It is responsible for receiving sensory input and generating motor output.
    • Nerves contain bundles of nerve fibers surrounded by connective tissue coverings of epineurium, perineurium and endoneurium.

    Peripheral Nerve

    • Peripheral nerves are bundles of nerve fibers enclosed in connective tissues.
    • The nerve is covered by dense connective tissue called epineurium.
    • Nerve bundles are surrounded by perineurium (it is formed of flattened epithelium-like cells).
    • It is covered by endoneurium (a delicate layer of reticular fibers), which maintains the individual nerve fibers separately.

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