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A type of immune response involving the activation of white blood cells and the release of inflammatory chemicals to fight infection.

The presence of an antibody in the blood serum that is specific to SARS-CoV-2.

A combination of antiretroviral drugs used to control HIV infection.

A stage in HIV infection characterized by a high viral load, low CD4+ T cell count, and the presence of clinical symptoms, such as fever, rash, and swollen lymph nodes.

The ability of a virus to change its genetic makeup over time, leading to new strains with potentially different characteristics.

Viruses that contain a lipid membrane surrounding their protein shell (capsid). This membrane is derived from the host cell and contains important viral proteins.

The protein shell that encloses the viral genome. It acts as a protective barrier and helps in attaching to host cells.

Viruses with a rod-like structure where the viral genome is coiled inside a cylindrical protein shell. Examples include Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Rabies.

A viral protein that binds to specific receptors on host cells, initiating the infection process.

Viruses that lack a lipid envelope and are composed only of a protein capsid surrounding their genetic material. They are more resistant to environmental conditions.

A type of bacteria with a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, which stains purple with the Gram stain.

A type of bacteria with a thin layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, located between the inner and outer membranes. They appear pink or red after counterstaining with the Gram stain.

The rigid outer layer of a bacterial cell that provides structure and protection. In Gram-positive bacteria, this layer is thicker and composed mainly of peptidoglycan.

A complex sugar molecule that forms the structural backbone of bacterial cell walls. It is a target for many antibiotics, such as penicillin.

A component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It is a potent toxin that can trigger strong immune responses.

A small circular piece of DNA found in bacteria, separate from the main chromosome. It can replicate independently and often carries genes for antibiotic resistance.

The region within a bacterial cell where the DNA is located. It is not enclosed by a membrane, unlike a nucleus in eukaryotic cells.

The ability of a bacterial cell to resist the effects of an antibiotic.

Bacteria that can cause disease in healthy individuals even with a functioning immune system.

These bacteria use special weapons like toxins or invasion proteins to harm our bodies.

These bacteria are usually harmless and can even be beneficial to us, but they can become harmful when our defenses are weakened.

These bacteria live on our skin, but can cause infection in people with compromised immune systems.

These bacteria often reside in our gut, but some strains can cause urinary tract infections.

Normally harmless bacteria that live with us and benefit us in various ways, like aiding digestion and preventing other pathogens from taking over.

The ability of our commensal bacteria to outcompete harmful pathogens for resources and space, preventing them from establishing themselves.

A condition that occurs when imbalance in the gut microbiome following antibiotic use allows the bacteria Clostridium difficile to overgrow.

HTLV (Human T-cell Leukemia Virus) is a retrovirus that can cause adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma, a type of cancer affecting white blood cells.

This classification system categorizes viruses based on their method of producing mRNA, which is essential for protein synthesis and viral replication.

These viruses have a double-stranded DNA genome, which is used to make mRNA directly. Examples include Herpesviruses and Adenoviruses.

These viruses possess a single-stranded DNA genome. Parvoviruses are a common example.

These viruses contain a double-stranded RNA genome. Reoviruses, like Rotavirus, belong to this class.

These viruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that acts directly as mRNA. Examples include Flaviviruses (e.g., Dengue) and Coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2).

These viruses use a single-stranded RNA genome that needs to be converted into mRNA before protein synthesis. Examples include Influenza and Rabies virus.

These viruses contain a single-stranded RNA genome, but they also possess the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which allows them to convert RNA into DNA. HIV (retroviruses) is a prominent example.

A bacterial defense mechanism where enzymes alter the structure of antibiotics, making them ineffective. These enzymes can be classified into different classes based on the antibiotics they target and their structural properties.

Enzymes that break down beta-lactam antibiotics like penicillin by breaking their ring structure, causing them to lose their antibacterial activity.

A class of beta-lactamases capable of breaking down third-generation cephalosporins, rendering them ineffective. This broad spectrum action makes them a significant threat in healthcare settings.

A class of beta-lactamases that require zinc to function and are particularly dangerous as they can break down carbapenems, a powerful class of antibiotics. NDM-1 is a particularly concerning example.

A class of beta-lactamases that confer resistance to a wide range of beta-lactam antibiotics. These are often found in bacteria that have developed resistance to other classes of antibiotics.

Enzymes that modify aminoglycoside antibiotics by adding chemical groups, preventing them from binding to the ribosomes and blocking protein synthesis in bacteria.

An enzyme that acetylates chloramphenicol, a commonly used antibiotic. This modification prevents the antibiotic from binding to the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting protein synthesis.

Bacterial resistance mechanisms involve intrinsic resistance, which is inherent to the bacteria's biology, and acquired resistance, which develops through mutations or horizontal gene transfer. These mechanisms provide bacteria with a survival advantage against antimicrobial agents, making infections more difficult to treat.