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This historical period marked a transformation in scientific thought and practice, focusing on observation, experimentation, and mathematical analysis.

The belief that the Earth is the center of the universe.

The belief that the Sun is the center of the universe.

A method of scientific inquiry that uses observation, experimentation, and analysis to understand natural phenomena.

Reasoning that starts with specific observations and draws general conclusions.

Reasoning that starts with general principles and applies them to specific cases.

A group of people with shared interests who collaborate and share knowledge.

Financial support for research projects.

Scientific discoveries, particularly in fields like geology and botany, enabled European powers to identify and exploit valuable resources in colonized territories.

European scientific advancements, especially in areas like transportation and communication, played a key role in facilitating and strengthening colonial expansion.

Scientific theories and classifications were often used to promote the idea of European cultural and racial superiority, justifying the domination of indigenous populations.

The scientific revolution in Europe led to industrialization, providing both the means and the motivation for imperial expansion.

Colonial powers often imposed European-style education systems that emphasized scientific knowledge while neglecting indigenous knowledge systems.

Indigenous peoples sometimes resisted the imposition of European scientific ideas by preserving their own cultural practices and knowledge systems.

The pervasive influence of European science on colonized societies left a complex and lasting impact on both the colonizers and the colonized.

European powers used scientific frameworks to assert their cultural superiority, often portraying indigenous societies as less advanced or 'primitive'.

Aristotle's theory explaining how things come to be and change; it includes four key aspects: material cause (what something is made of), formal cause (its shape or essence), efficient cause (how it came to be), and final cause (its purpose or function).

Aristotle's concept that objects naturally seek their ideal position based on elements: Earth falls down (toward the center), fire rises up (away from the center).

The force that sets an object in motion; unlike natural motion, it requires an external source.

Aristotle's idea that something is the ultimate cause of all motion; it must be unchanging and eternal, setting everything else in motion.

The approach used by early Greek thinkers to understand the natural world, emphasizing observation, reasoning, and logical debate.

Romans preserved and spread Greek knowledge by translating Greek works into Latin, making them accessible to a broader audience.

The Roman emphasis on practical application of knowledge, leading to advancements in engineering, architecture, and civil infrastructure.

The ongoing influence of Greek philosophical ideas—from observation and reasoning to systematic inquiry—on later scholars and scientific progress.

A period of intense rivalry and military buildup between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, marked by the development of nuclear weapons and a space race.

The threat of mutual destruction that would occur if both nuclear superpowers launched their nuclear weapons at each other.

An arms race in the space exploration field between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, driven by military considerations and seeking technological dominance.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) are weapons capable of causing large-scale destruction and casualties, such as nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons.

The ethical dilemma faced by scientists involved in military research, questioning whether their work will be used for destructive purposes.

The debate about whether scientists should be held responsible for the consequences of their inventions, particularly in warfare.

Military technologies, such as nuclear weapons and guided missiles, continued to develop after WWII, influencing international relations and defense policies.

Chemical and biological weapons remained a concern even after international treaties banned their use.

A fundamental principle in quantum mechanics stating that it is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of a particle at the same time. This means there is inherent uncertainty in measurements at the microscopic level.

A theory by Albert Einstein that revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. It proposes that these concepts are not absolute but are relative to the observer's motion and position.

A revolutionary idea that challenged the classical view of scientific progress as a steady accumulation of knowledge. Kuhn argued that science progresses through periods of stability (normal science) punctuated by sudden shifts in understanding called paradigm shifts.

A period of stability in scientific progress, characterized by shared assumptions and methods, where scientists focus on solving problems within a well-defined framework.

The idea that science does not have a monopoly on truth and that other forms of knowledge, including subjective experiences and cultural values, should be considered equally valid.

A branch of philosophy that critiques the idea that science is an objective, value-free pursuit of truth. It challenges the notion of absolute truth and emphasizes the influence of social and historical factors on scientific knowledge.

The radical notion that there are no fixed or absolute rules in science and that all methods and theories are open to questioning and reevaluation. This view encourages scientific creativity and a critical approach to knowledge.

A view that science is influenced by social, cultural, and historical factors, making its development non-linear and often influenced by power structures and dominant ideologies.

The launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in 1957 marked the beginning of the space age, significantly altering humanity's perception of the universe and its place within it.

The space race, fueled by Cold War rivalry, became a prominent battleground for scientific advancement. Each nation sought to outdo the other in space achievements.

Viewing Earth from space, as through the iconic 'pale blue dot' photograph, profoundly changed human understanding of the planet, inspiring a sense of interconnectedness and environmental responsibility.

The Apollo program, a monumental endeavor, successfully landed humans on the moon, showcasing the pinnacle of scientific and engineering capabilities.

The technological advancements born out of the space race, beyond their military applications, had profound impacts on civilian life, leading to breakthroughs in communications, medicine, and computer systems.

The space race sparked widespread public interest in science and technological fields, resulting in long-lasting educational and cultural shifts.

The combination of scientific achievement and practical application of science for improving daily life is exemplified by advancements in technology during the 20th century.

The space race emphasized the importance of caring for Earth, highlighting its fragility and its place in the universe.